THE INDUSTRIAL TYPE OF SOCIETY. 621 



tained secured comparative order. Further, it is to be noted 

 that such general wars as occurred were mostly carried on 

 abroad. Descents on our coasts were lew and unimportant, 

 and conflicts with Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, entailed but 

 few intrusions on English soil. Consequently, there was a 

 relatively small hindrance to industrial life and the growth 

 of social forms appropriate to it. Meanwhile, the condition 

 of France was widely different. During this period and long 

 after, besides wars with England (mostly fought out on 

 French soil) and wars with other countries, there were going 

 on everywhere local wars. From the 10th to the 14th century 

 perpetual fights between suzerains and their vassals occurred, 

 as well as fights of vassals with one another. Not until 

 towards the middle of the 14th century did the king begin 

 greatly to predominate over the nobles; and only in the 

 15th century was there established a supreme ruler strong 

 enough to prevent the quarrels of local rulers. How great 

 was the repression of industrial development caused by 

 internal conflicts, may be inferred from the exaggerated 

 language of an old writer, who says of this period, during 

 which the final struggle of monarchy with feudalism was 

 going on, that &quot;agriculture, traffic, and all the mechanical 

 arts ceased.&quot; Such being the contrast between the 



small degree in which industrial life was impeded by war in 

 England, and the great degree in which it was impeded by 

 war in France, let us ask what were the political contrasts 

 which arose. The first fact to be noted is that in the middle 

 of the 13th century there began in England a mitigation of 

 villeinage, by limitation of labour-services and commutation 

 of them for money, and that in the 14th century the trans 

 formation of a servile into a free population had in great 

 measure taken place ; while in France, as in other continental 

 countries, the old condition survived and became worse. As 

 Mr. Freeman says of this period &quot;in England villeinage 

 was on the whole dying out, while in many other countries it 

 was getting harder and harder.&quot; Besides this spreading sub- 



