456 INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTIONS. 



money penalties for manslaughter and personal injuries.&quot; 

 So, too, Lappenberg tells us that &quot; At the head of the gilds, 

 as of the cities, we usually find earldormen.&quot; And still more 

 specific is Brentano, who, concerning town-organization be 

 fore and after the Conquest, writes : 



&quot; The whole body of full citizens, that is, of the possessors of por 

 tions of the town-lands of a certain value, the civitas^ united itself 

 everywhere into one Gild, convivium conjuratum ; the citizens and 

 the Gild became identical ; and what was Gild-law became the law of 

 the town.&quot; 



Of course, following the process of evolution, primitive 

 coincidence passed into divergence as growth became great. 

 This is shown by the fact that in London, the political 

 administration separated from the industrial so early that 

 there remains little clear trace of the original gild-merchant. 

 Moreover we see, locally illustrated, the truth already il 

 lustrated at large, that all kinds of regulation are differ 

 entiated from one primitive kind. Even still, where social 

 development is less advanced, as in the principalities of 

 Eastern Europe, the old communal organization is traceable 

 in both the municipal and the trading organizations. 



791. Turning now to the industrial characters of these 

 merchant-gilds, which gradually differentiated from earlier 

 local combinations having religious and municipal charac 

 ters, we have first to note that subordination of the industrial 

 government to the political government is again shown. 

 These gilds were incorporated by charters charters each 

 of which, in the beginning, was bought from some feudal 

 superior, who might be archbishop, lay seigneur, or lord of 

 the manor, chapter, or monastery; but who, in later times, 

 when feudal powers were subordinated by royal powers, 

 became the king. By one of these charters there was prac 

 tically made over to the gild, for a consideration, the right 

 of electing officers, of authorizing the carrying on of trades, 

 and of making industrial regulations. Of course they had 



