488 INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTIONS. 



late apeculium. There were the ceorls (afterwards villeins) 

 or irremovable cultivators. And there were tenants who 

 had considerable degrees of independence while under cer 

 tain obligations. A passage from Lappenberg, referring 

 apparently to immigrant tenants, possibly fugitives, gives 

 some insight into the general relations before the Norman 

 Conquest. 



11 Every husbandman (gebur) received, on being settled on the land 

 of his hlaford, seven sown acres on his yard of land, two oxen, a cow 

 and six sheep. . . . Besides these swineherds who attended to the 

 herds of the lord (aehte-swan), there was another class (gafol-swan), 

 each of whom paid a yearly rent of ten swine and five pigs, reserving 

 all above this number for himself ; but was bound to keep a horse for 

 the service of his lord.&quot; 



But while there was thus dependence and obligation on the 

 one side, there was defence on the other. Lappenberg, 

 says : 



&quot;The wealthy lord of the soil, the feudal superior, took all his vassals 

 or subjects under his protection, which the kindred formerly afforded, 

 and undertook the obligation of presenting them, if accused, to justice, 

 and to pay the wergild of the homicide who had fled.&quot; 



And this statement supports the inference that the local 

 manorial group with its lord, had grown out of the original 

 military community with its chief ; constituted in such way 

 that each member, bound to the whole, was subject to its 

 ruling authority, while the whole through its ruling au 

 thority protected each member. 



How natural are such social relations in early half-mili 

 tant, half-agricultural, stages, is further shown by the pre- 

 existence of such relations among the Celts. In Wales the 

 old patriarchal organization, growing into that of a scattered 

 village-community, had, partly by inter-tribal wars and re 

 sulting slave-captures, partly by the subjection of evil-doers, 

 illegitimate sons, and &quot; kin-broken &quot; tribesmen who had lost 

 their rights, generated unf ree classes ; and there had arisen 

 grades of ownerships, and obligations. A prince s or lord s 

 territory included a manor with his residence, demesne 



