FREE LABOUR AND CONTRACT. 503 



Thus we may perceive that the perfectly independent 

 peasant has come into existence only in our days. 



812. More rapid changes went on in the towns changes 

 which were at first much the same, for in early days urban 

 life and rural life were not distinguished as they are now. 

 Towns having very generally been formed by the clustering 

 of houses round the strongholds of nobles, their inhabitants 

 were as much under feudal control as were residents in the 

 surrounding country. But the acquisition of freedom by 

 them was in various ways rendered easier; and we may con 

 clude that it was specially facilitated in towns which were 

 not dominated by castles. 



Taking up the thread of the argument broken off in the 

 last section, we may consider first the condition of immigrant 

 serfs. These, after a specified period, could not be reclaimed, 

 and became nominally free. But they were not practically 

 free; for, with modification, the urban regime was akin to 

 the rural regime. The escaped villein entering a town as a 

 stranger without means, without protection, and without 

 standing in a court of justice, had no alternative but to put 

 himself under some well-to-do citizen and accept a qualified 

 servitude in return for safety. Unable to carry on any busi 

 ness, unable even to work as a journeyman until he had 

 passed through an apprenticeship, he must either starve or 

 submit to any conditions imposed, however hard. Moreover, 

 besides free handicraftsmen there were bond-handicraftsmen 

 men not yet emancipated from feudal control. Brentano 

 writes : 



&quot;The population of the towns, at least of those on the Continent, 

 consisted, as late as the llth century, of officials, old freemen, and 

 bondmen. To the last belonged the greater part of the handicrafts 

 men, who, obliged to pay certain taxes and to perform certain feudal 

 services and labours for their lords, were subjected to officers appointed 

 by them.&quot; 

 This statement is made with respect to places abroad in 



which the inhabitants at lars-e were under feudal govern- 

 132 



