I;UAU.AT>KIX 



INVK .!'. 





Quadrupeds,' Mr. Swainson adverts to the elongation of the upper 

 jaw or mandible of these animals, a peculiarity which ia more con- 

 spicuous, be says, in them and their representative* than in any other 

 groups. " If," continues Mr. Swainaon, " we examine, for instance, 

 the bill of the woodcock family, we find that its termination in regard 

 to the contour gives an almost ludicrous resemblance to the muzzle 

 of a rat, particularly if we fancy that both were of the same size. 

 Now it is perfectly clear, that as these two animals when feeding 

 generally insert their muzzle in the ground, so there can be no doubt 

 that this particular formation is essential to that propensity. The 

 only quadrupeds, again, which have the snout inclining upwards, are 

 of the gliriform type ; and the only birds in which the bill takes the 

 aame direction are typical of the Orallatont. The Sorez, Datyput, 

 &c., are all types of the gliriform quadrupeds, as those of Troc/iilus, 

 Arotett*, Trimga, are of the grallatorial structure in birds : so that 

 the resemblance of the snout of Kama and Avotetta are as like as it 

 ia possible, considering that one is a quadruped and the other a bird. 

 To the same type also belongs the Echidna, or Porcupine Ant-Eater, 

 the American genus Myrmecopkaga, and the Indian Manii : all these 

 are pre-eminently characterised by that great prolongation of muzzle 

 which constitutes, as before mentioned, one of the chief characters of 

 the type we are now illustrating." We have given Mr. Swainson's 

 own words, that the reader may have on opportunity of forming his 

 own opinion as to the premises and conclusion ; and we must further 

 add, with reference to this volume, that Mr. Swainson considers that 

 the typical structure of the wading foot " U found in the Sandpipers 

 (Triaga), Tatlers (Totanui), and Snipes (Scolopax)." 



In the second volume of ' The Classification of Birds,' we find that 

 Mr. Swainson considers that the families under which the Waders are 

 naturally arranged are these : " 1, the Ardeadir, or Herons ; 2, the 

 Charadriada, or Plovers; 3, the Trinrjiilir, or Sandpipers; 4, the 

 Rallula, or Kails ; 5, the Tantaiitltr, or Ibices (Ibises)." Mr. Swainson 

 is of opinion that the 2nd and 3rd ore the typical groups. In the 

 aame volume, farther on, we find the families of the (iraUatora in the 

 following order : Ardeada, Tantalida;, Rallida, Scolopacidai, Chara- 

 driada, and at pages 28, 32, &c., will be found other analogical tables 

 and explanations regarding the order. 



PottU GraUatora. 



The fossil remains of the families of this order will be noticed 

 under the articles which treat of them. But we may here state that 

 the remains of Wading Birds occur in various strata. For instance, 

 in the gypsum of the Paris Basin (Tertiary Eocene period of Lyell) 

 the bones of birds referrible to the genera Scolvtxix, Tringa, and Ibis 

 have been found ; and, in the fresh-water formation of Tilgate Forest 

 (secondary series) Dr. Mautell found the remains of a Wader larger 

 than a common Heron. But this bird must have been a pigmy when 

 compared with those gigantic Waders (apparently) whose footsteps 

 Professor Hitchcock records as being preserved in the new red-sand- 

 atone of the valley of the Connecticut. The professor refers these 

 fossil footsteps to at least seven species of (Irallatorei with very long 

 legs, and ranging from the size of a snipe to twice the dimensions of 

 an ostrich. 



These footmarks, which Professor Hitchcock names Ornithichnitci, 

 were found at various depths beneath the actual surface in quarries 

 of laminated flagstones, at five places near the banks of the river, 

 within a distance of 30 miles. The inclination of the sandstone is 

 from 5 to 30, and the tracks appear to have been made on it 

 before the strata were so inclined. Seven of these tracks, which 

 the professor figure*, are considered by him to have been made by 

 seven different species, if not genera. The footsteps appear in 

 regular succession on the continuous track of an animal in the act of 

 walking or running, with the right and left foot always in their proper 

 places. There is occasionally a variation in the distance of the 

 intervals between each footstep on the same track, but to no greater 

 amount than the alteration of its pace by the bird would explain. 

 Many tracks of different individuals and different species are often 

 found crossing each other, and the footsteps are sometimes crowded 

 together in the same manner that impressions of the feet of ducks 

 and geese are left on the muddy shore of the stream or pond where 

 they resort. The professor remarks, however, that none of the foot- 

 steps appear to be those of web-footed birda ; they most resemble, 

 he states, those of (irallie (Waders), or birds whose habits resemble 

 those of Grallir. The impressions of three toes are usually distinct, 

 except in a few instances ; that of the hind toe is mostly wanting, 

 as in the fooUteps of modem (trailer. But we must now draw the 

 reader's attention to the most remarkable among these footmarks, 

 hitherto found in one quarry only, at Mount Thorn nesr Northampton, 

 where were discovered four nearly parallel tracks of a gigantic bird, 

 whose foot measured 15 inches hi length, exclusive of the largest claw, 

 which was 2 inches in length. All the three toes were broad and 

 thick. In one of the tracks a regular succession of six of these 

 enormous footsteps appeared at a distance of 4 feet from each other ; 

 in others the distance varied from 4 to 6 feet, and it is supposed 

 that the Utter was the longest step of this bird-giant whilst it was 

 running. 



The fooUteps next to be noticed are those of another enormous 

 bin!, whose toes were however more slender than those of the last 



(< h-nilhii-knilft yiyantrut), but measured from 15 to 16 inches in length, 

 exclusive of a remarkable appendage extending backwards from the 

 heel 8 or 9 inches, and apparently intended to sustain the animal 

 when walking on a soft bottom. The impressions of this appendage 

 bear a resemblance to those of wiry feathers or coarse bristles, which 

 appear to have sunk into the mud and sand nearly an inch deep ; but 

 the toes had sunk much deeper, and the mud was raised into a ridge 

 several inches high r.-und their impressions, similar to the elevation 

 round the track of on deplum'. in clay. Six feet sometimes seem to 

 have made the length of this bird's stride. Other tracks indicate 

 shorter steps; and the smallest impression tallies with a foot of only 

 an inch long, with a step ranging from 3 to 5 inches. It is to be 

 noted that in every track the length of the step increases with the 

 ize of the foot, and is much longer than the steps of any known 

 existing species of birds. A greater length of leg is thence in: 

 th:m that of modern Wading Birds; and it is considered that the 

 stops which are 4 feet asunder probably indicate a leg of G IV- 1 in 

 length. 



The margin of shallow water subject to changes of level, and in 

 which sediment* of sand and mud were alternately deposited, appears 

 to have been the locality where these ancient birds congregated. The 

 inferred length of limb would have been well adapted for wading in 

 such a place. 



The bones of fishes only (Paltroihrinnum) have yet been found in 

 the rock that has transmitted to us these footsteps, " which are of the 

 highest interest to the palaeontologist, as they establish the new fact 

 of the existence of birds at the early epoch of the new red-sandstone 

 formation ; and further show that some of the moat ancient forms of 

 this class attained a size for exceeding that of the largest among the 

 feathered inhabitants of the present world, and were adapted for 

 wading and running rather than for flight." 



(American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xxix. ; Buckland, 

 Bridifetcater Treatite.) 



GHAMINA'CE.t;, or GRASSES, are a very extensive and important 

 natural order of Endogenous Plants, comprehending many of the 

 most valuable pasture plants, all those which yield corn, such as 

 wheat, barley, and maize, the sole source of colonial sugar in the 

 sugar-cane, and the most fragrant of all plants in the form of Ainli"- 

 pogons. Their structure is among the most simple of the perfect 

 forms of vegetation; a stem clothed with alternate leaves whose 

 stalks are universally thin, and constituting as many sheaths to guard 

 the young and rapidly growing shoots, a few rudimentary leaves 

 collected at the ends of the branches of inflorescence, and constituting 

 flowers, a very small number of stamens, and a single seed inclosed 

 in a thin pericarp, are all that nature provides to enable these plants 

 to preserve their race and to distinguish their numerous kinds from 

 one another. Vet, with such a simple apparatus, many thousand 

 species are so precisely characterised that the natural order of Grasses 

 is perhaps one of the easiest to study and arrange, provided the task 

 be commenced upon right principles. The floral leaves, called glumes, 

 paleae, and scales, offer a prodigious number of different appeal 

 according to the manner in which they are combined or modified ; 

 and the inflorescence, the number of stamens, the texture of tin- 

 parts, or the relation of the sexes to each other, afford additional 

 means by which the distinctive characters are varied. 



This is, no doubt, one of the wise provisions of Providence by 

 which man is enabled to distinguish good from evil, the useful from 

 the useless, the profitable from the unprofitable. For in no class of 

 plants U it more necessary than in grasses to know how to choose 

 between different species. For instance, most grasses are saccharine 

 and nutritious to cattle, but the species of Jlolcun, Jlromtu, &c., are 

 as frequently worthless. There ia a great difference between the 

 value of grasses for pasture ; certain kinds suit the meadows, others 

 marshes, others upland fields, and others bleak and sterile hills, where 

 they furnish valuable food for sheep : these kinds will not grow indis- 

 criminately, or are not equally mutable for different soils and situations, 

 and it is therefore essential for the husbandman that he should be 

 capable of discriminating between them. Some indicate the quality 

 of soil : the species of Dactylii, J/olcut, and Jiromni are inhabitants 

 of sterile land; the fetlucat and Alopecuri of better soil; while 

 various Pott and Cynoturut are found only in pasture-land of excellent 

 quality. Most grasses are perfectly harmless, if not nutritious ; yet 

 the single species Lulivm tcmlcnttn is a deleterious species in the 

 midst of harmless Lolia ; and liromm purgant and Fetluca quadriden- 

 tala afford similar instances of this singular exception to ordinary 

 rules. 



For these and similar reasons, classification, which at all times is so 

 necessary, here becomes the very foundation of nil corrvct knowledge, 

 and it has accordingly very particularly excited the attention of syste- 

 matic botanists from the time when the general term (Iramcn was 

 broken up by Linnrcus into a number of different genera. It is not 

 desirable in this place to show by what degrees the knowledge of 

 botanists upon this subject has advanced from the days of I.inmcus 

 up to the present time. Those who are desirous of gaining this 

 information should consult Palisot de Bcauinis' 'Agrostogra]>hir,' 

 published at Paris in 1812, and the subsequent writings of Brown, 

 Kunth, Nees von Escnbeck, and Trinius. We shall confine ourselves 

 to a general technical description of the order, partly founded upon 



