326 



GEOGEAPIIICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. 



through that channel has no appreciable influ- 

 ence on the temperature of the Arctic Oceun. 

 The polar basin has an area of considerably 

 more than 150,000 geographical square miles, 

 and a depth averaging, according to present 

 data, not quite twenty-eight fathoms. At a 

 moderate estimate one half of the water is 

 frozen at the beginning of summer. The maxi- 

 mum swiftness of the current through Behring 

 Strait observed was one foot a second, and the 

 highest temperature 8-9 C., while the average 

 temperature is 5'8 0. The total effect of a 

 constant current at the highest temperature 

 noted would melt only about 8 per cent of the 

 polar ice. The time during which the current 

 passes freely through the strait is only ninety 

 days in the year. The current through Behr- 

 ing Strait does not flow constantly northward, 

 into the Arctic. If the set of the current is 

 taken to be northward for two thirds of the 

 year, and it is supposed to flow at the maxi- 

 mum swiftness, at the average temperature ob- 

 served in Behring Strait, the total effect of the 

 volume of warmer water flowing in through 

 the strait would be to melt only 3*4 per cent 

 of the ice in the Arctic basin, that is, to clear 

 an area of about half the extent of Kotzebue 

 Sound; arid when the loss of heat by return 

 currents and radiation into the air are taken 

 into consideration, the influence of the current 

 from Behring Sea into the Arctic Ocean must 

 be insignificant. If the comparative size of 

 the channel of Behring Strait and of the polar 

 basin were duly considered, no theories would 

 be built up which depend on the influx of 

 warm water from the Pacific. If the polar 

 basin were empty, it would require eight and a 

 half months to fill it again through Behring 

 Strait. The Kuro-Siwo has been supposed to 

 divide at the Aleutes, one portion recurving 

 and descending along the American shore, and 

 another pouring into Behring Sea, and sending 

 a stream of warm water into the Arctic. Dall 

 denies that a branch of the Pacific Gulf Stream 

 enters Behring Sea, between Kamchatka and 

 the Aleutian Islands, or by any other channel. 

 The Kuro-Siwo is very different from the At- 

 lantic Gulf Stream ; its volume is much smaller, 

 and it is subject to extreme variations, which 

 seem to be caused by the monsoons. The pre- 

 vailing movement of the waters of Behring Sea 

 is a flow of cold water to the southward. The 

 surface layer has a general motion in the con- 

 trary direction, when not interrupted by winds, 

 but neither in volume, in swiftness, nor in con- 

 stancy is this flow strong enough to be con- 

 sidered an ocean-current. The surface-currents 

 of Behring Sea are produced by or depend 

 principally upon the winds, the influx of fresh- 

 water streams, the steady southward drift of 

 the cold water, the distribution of the floating 

 ice-masses, and the northward movement of 

 the warmer surface-water; the activity of 

 these several factors is indicated by the order 

 of this enumeration. No warm current flows 

 through Behring Strait from Behring Sea ex- 



cept such as are composed of water from the 

 inflowing rivers and neighboring sounds, whicli 

 owe their warmth to the direct action of the 

 sun's rays. The strait would not be large 

 enough to let through a current of warm watrr 

 sufficient in volume to exercise an appreciable 

 influence on the portion of the polar basin ly- 

 ing north of it. The currents flowing through 

 the strait are cold. They are mostly tidal cur- 

 rents, though their main tendency is to flow 

 northward. The currents in the Arctic Sea 

 north of Behring Strait are particularly subject 

 to the influence of the winds, but tend to move 

 in certain known lines of direction. The 

 knowledge which we have of these up to the 

 present gives no encouragement to the hope 

 that through their action a navigable route to 

 the pole or a passage to the northward for any 

 distance is created. Not a single fact was dis- 

 covered in the whole investigation in support 

 of the popular but unscientific supposition that 

 there are extensive areas of open water within 

 the polar basin. 



Dr. Pelligrino Manteucci, a young Italian 

 traveler, who had already distinguished himself 

 by explorations in the Soodan, traversed the 

 continent of Africa diagonally from Suakim on 

 the Red Sea to the mouth of the Niger, emerg- 

 ing with his companion, Massari, at the west 

 coast in July. Manteucci and Lieutenant Mas- 

 sari were chosen by Prince Giovanni Borghese 

 to accompany him on an intended journey to 

 the little known and inhospitable Mohammed- 

 an kingdoms of the inner Soodan. The party 

 set out from Cairo in February, 1880, for Su- 

 akim, and crossed the desert to Khartoom. 

 They then traversed the sandy plains of Kor- 

 dofan on camels. They traveled often at night, 

 when they were safer from the attacks of rob- 

 bers, and escaped the intense heat of the sun. 

 They suffered much from want of water be- 

 fore reaching their destination, El Obeid, the 

 capital of Kordofan. This city is the emporium 

 of the trade in gum and ostrich-feathers. There 

 are many Arab traders, but no Europeans resi- 

 dent there. At El Fasher, the capital of Dar- 

 fbor, the authority of the Egyptian Government, 

 which had assisted and protected the travelers 

 thus far, reaches its limit. In this town, which 

 contains 10,000 inhabitants, they remained a 

 long time, treating with the Sultan of Wadai 

 through messengers, until they began to despair 

 of gaining his leave to traverse his dominions. 

 Here Prince Borghese, yielding to the solicitous 

 messages from his family, left the party and 

 returned to Italy. As soon as they obtained 

 the coveted permission to cross Wadai and visit 

 its capital, Abeshr, they advanced into the 

 strange land by the same route which Nachti- 

 gal had traveled. The Sultan of Wadai is pos- 

 sessed with the belief that he will die at the 

 hands of a Turk, and as all light-lined people 

 are counted Turks by him, he rigidly excludes 

 Europeans from his kingdom. Manteucci per- 

 suaded the superstitious potentate that they 

 could neither of them be his predicted slayer, 





