RED-CROSS SOCIETIES AND THE LAWS OF WAR. 



717 



uniform or badge. The establishment of the 

 rights of people who rise in a mass to repel in- 

 vasion is more hopeless, and all the nations of 

 Europe will probably be forced to maintain a 

 general Landwehr organization. 



PROPOSITIONS. In 1874 a further proposal 

 to extend the provisions of the Geneva Con- 

 vention emanated from the Russian Govern- 

 ment. In the conference which met at Brus- 

 sels to consider the propositions presented by 

 Baron Jomini, fifteen states took part. Sev- 

 eral of them raised objections to the project of 

 a declaration, which was agreed upon by a 

 majority of the representatives, August 27, 

 1874; and a new proposition was formulated 

 by the Russian Government in the beginning 

 of 1876. The Russo-Turkish War intervened, 

 and the negotiations were not subsequently 

 resumed; but in that war Russia put into 

 practice certain stipulations of the Brussels 

 declaration which relate to the treatment of 

 prisoners of war. 



With the authorization given by these trea- 

 ties, the association of national Red-Cross soci- 

 eties was founded, and soon grew up to be the 

 most potent and extensive non-religious organi- 

 zation for merciful works known to modern 

 times. Their beneficent activity commenced 

 in the Franco-Prussian War. Many hundreds 

 of volunteer surgeons who did yeomen's service 

 in both camps were maintained by the Red- 

 Cross societies of England, Russia, Austria, 

 Italy, and the smaller states. The German 

 Red Cross established communications with the 

 French, news of the wounded and captive were 

 transmitted to friends across the lines, and the 

 contributions to the French prisoners in Ger- 

 many were forwarded from France through 

 this agency. The German Central Committee 

 dispensed in their own work during the brief 

 campaign over $18,000,000. The English Red 

 Cross in the Turkish War displayed great en- 

 ergy and bravery as well as munificence in ful- 

 filling its benevolent mission. The expenditures 

 of the Russian and English societies during that 

 war were enormous. In the decade which fol- 

 lowed the definite organization of the interna- 

 tional association in 1869, the Red Cross has 

 been active at the scene of conflict in every war 

 where it could receive the protection guaran- 

 teed in the treaty in Spain, Bosnia, South 

 America, South and East Africa, in Central 

 Asia on the Indus, at Cabool, and in the Turko- 

 man steppes, where the Russian volunteer 

 sanitary column took under its protection the 

 Turkoman women and children who were be- 

 ing ruthlessly massacred by the Russian sol- 

 diery in revenge for the courageous defense of 

 Geok Tepe. 



SOCIETIES. The organization of the Red- 

 Cross societies and their relations to the state 

 and military authorities are very different in 

 the various countries notwithstanding the ef- 

 forts made at the conference of Berlin to es- 

 tablish definite and uniform rules. The Neth- 

 erlands Society, which, like the English, has 



been particularly active in practical work in 

 the Caucasus, South Africa, and Acheen was 

 founded by the King, and occupies a semi-offi- 

 cial position, being placed under the control of 

 the Ministry of War, and receiving an allow- 

 ance from the military budget. In the other 

 countries where the societies were initiated by 

 the governments, the relations to the military 

 authorities are close. In Sweden the first 

 president of the society was the Crown Prince, 

 the present King, and the organization is un- 

 der the patronage of the Marine Department. 

 In Spain the society was founded by Queen 

 Isabella in 1864, and amalgamated with the 

 order of the Knights of Saint John. In Italy 

 also, as well as in Austria, England, Prussia, 

 and elsewhere, the orders of Saint John or of 

 Malta united with the Red Cross, which, under 

 the patronage of the King, attained a high de- 

 gree of organization and established regular 

 relations with the army. In France the Red 

 Cross was founded in 1864, and promoted by 

 Napoleon III. In the war of 1870 it was more 

 efficient than the sanitary department of the 

 army. It has a highly developed and central- 

 ized organization, and is composed of about 

 one hundred different branches attached to the 

 military districts and adapted to special objects. 

 In Belgium, where much has been done for 

 sanitary science, and in Switzerland, where the 

 Red Cross originated, the organization and de- 

 velopment of the societies have made little 

 headway. In Russia the women took an active 

 part in establishing the Red-Cross societies. 

 These attained an extraordinary development 

 during the Turkish War, and have since been 

 very active in the Asiatic campaigns. The cen- 

 tral organization has no organic connection 

 witli the army, but the workers of the society 

 are welcomed and aided by Russian command- 

 ers. In Germany and Austria the organization 

 is highly developed, and enjoys an officially 

 recognized position, with the advantage or dis- 

 advantage of official inspection and regular re- 

 lations with the Ministry of War. In Austria- 

 Hungary, as well as in Russia, and, to a greater 

 or less extent, in Italy, England, Belgium, the 

 Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries, 

 the ladies were prominent in the development 

 of the societies. In England, which has con- 

 tributed greater actual services under the Red 

 Cross than any other country, and with greater 

 disinterestedness, there is no centralized or- 

 ganization. In the great European wars three 

 separate associations directed the work of be- 

 nevolence the National Society of the Red 

 Cross, the Order of St. John, and the Stafford 

 House Committee. The first two have branches 

 corresponding to the plan adopted by the inter- 

 national congress, but lack a central control. 



POSITION OF THE UNITED STATES. The Uni- 

 ted States was the only great power remaining 

 which did not officially recognize the rights 

 to special protection secured to the bearers of 

 the Red-Cross symbol, and which did not pos- 

 sess a national society. Yet the most magnifi- 



