TUBERCULOSIS, BACTERIAL ORIGIN OF. 



ery of the fungoid origin of various infectious 

 and epidemic diseases, that tubercular disease 

 was also caused by microphytic germs. In- 

 vestigators in this new branch of etiology stud- 

 ied this disease particularly for a year or two. 

 Its infectious character was established, but 

 its bacterial origin could not be proved by the 

 usual test of inoculation from infusions. Dr. 

 Robert Koch, who had already performed dis- 

 tinguished services in this field, finally suc- 

 ceeded in detecting the specific bacterium. 

 He found a characteristic and previously un- 

 known bacillus in all tubercularly altered or- 

 gans. They are very slender, and have a 

 length of from one quarter to one half the 

 diameter of the red corpuscles of the blood, 

 rarely as great as the whole diameter. They 

 resemble the Lepra bacilli, but are not so thin, 

 nor, like them, tapering at the extremities. 

 Wherever the tubercular process is in its early 

 and active stage, these bacteria are present in 

 great numbers, crowded together in small, 

 dense groups, often forming regular bundles. 

 These groups frequently occupy the interior 

 of the cells. On the outside of the cheesy 

 new-growths great numbers of single bacilli 

 are observed. When the climax of the tuber- 

 cular eruption is passed, they decrease and 

 may totally disappear. 



This characteristic bacillus is found in pul- 

 monary tuberculosis, cheesy bronchitis and 

 pneumonia, tubercles of the brain, intestinal 

 tubercles, scrofulous glands, and fungous in- 

 flammation of the joints. It is present in all 

 cases of spontaneous consumption in animals, 

 having been observed in cattle, hogs, poultry, 

 monkeys, porpoises, and rabbits. In monkeys 

 dead of consumption the bacilli were found in 

 countless bunches pervading the lungs, spleen, 

 liver, diaphragm, and lymphatic glands. This 

 bacterium has no motion except the motion of 

 growth. Its life-period is only a few weeks. 

 Koch supposes that the germs attach them- 

 selves to the floating particles of the air, and 

 are inhaled with these into the lungs, and that 

 this is the usual manner of infection. They 

 get into the air, as he surmises, from the ex- 

 pectorations of phthisical patients, in which 

 he also found the bacilli. As the dried bacilli 

 were found to retain their fertility for weeks, 

 the dried sputum of consumptives can spread 

 the seeds of disease far and wide through the 

 air. 



This discovery must have an important in- 

 fluence on the diagnosis and treatment of con- 

 sumption. It is the first infectious disease 

 of human beings which has been positively 

 proved to be of parasitic origin. The prophy- 

 lactic precautions suggested by Koch's discov- 

 eries are very promising. Unlike the anthrax 

 bacillus, the specific germ of tuberculosis thrives 

 only in the living body. The sputum of con- 

 sumptives should be carefully disinfected ; 

 and, since the identity of Perlsucht of domes- 

 tic animals and the tuberculosis of human 

 beings has been established, the meat and milk 



TURKEY. 



799 



of infected animals ought to be inspected and 

 destroyed. 



TURKEY, an empire in Europe and Asia. 

 The fundamental laws are derived from the 

 precepts of the Koran and the Multeka. When 

 not in conflict with the sacred Mohammedan 

 laws the will of the Sultan is absolute. The 

 Constitution proclaimed by Abdul-Hamid, De- 

 cember 23, 1876, is modeled upon European 

 forms of government; but, like the previous 

 Constitution of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, it has not 

 been carried into effect. 



The reigning Sultan is Abdul-Harmd II, born 

 September 22, 1842, who succeeded to the 

 throne upon the deposition of his brother Mu- 

 rad, August 31, 1876. Murad, who was de- 

 clared by the Council of Ministers to be an im- 

 becile, had succeeded his uncle, Abdul- Aziz, 

 deposed May 30, 1876, on a similar pretext. 

 Abdul- Aziz died soon after in consequence of 

 an act of violence, which was officially report- 

 ed to have been committed by his own hand. 

 Abdul-Hamid is the thirty-fifth in descent of 

 the house of Othman. The crown descends to 

 the oldest male member of the imperial family. 

 All children born in the harem of free women 

 or of slaves are legitimate and equal in rank. 

 The inmates of the harem are usually brought 

 from abroad, most of them from Circassia. A 

 certain number, usually seven, are chosen by 

 the Sultan as Kadyn, or Ladies of the Palace ; 

 the rest, called Odalik, serve these in the ca- 

 pacity of servants. The chief of the guard of 

 eunuchs is equal in rank with the Prime Min- 

 ister, or Grand Vizier. 



The executive and legislative authority is ex- 

 ercised under the Sultan by the Grand Vizier, 

 who is the head of the temporal Government, 

 and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the chief inter- 

 preter of the Koran and head of the Ulema, or 

 council of learned men summoned to debate 

 and expound the laws. 



The Ministerial Council of the Sublime Porte 

 was composed at the end of 1882 of the follow- 

 ing persons: Said Pasha, Grand Vizier and 

 Minister of Foreign Affairs ; Akif Pasha, Presi- 

 dent of the Council ; Ghazi Osman Pasha, Min- 

 ister of War ; Hassan Pasha, Minister of Ma- 

 rine; Mahmud Neclim Pasha, Minister of the 

 Interior; Djevdet Pasha, Minister of Justice; 

 Munir Bey, Minister of Finance ; Subhi Pasha, 

 Minister of Commerce and Agriculture; Musta- 

 pha Pasha, Minister of Public Instruction ; As- 

 sym Pasha, Director of Vakufs (sacred prop- 

 erty) ; Hassan Fehmi Effendi, Minister of Pub- 

 lic Works ; Ali Saib Pasha, Chief of Artillery. 



The Sheik-ul-Islam is Ahmed Essad Effendi. 

 The Kizlar Agassi, or chief of the eunuchs, is 

 Hafiz Bahram Agha. 



The empire is divided into vilayets, which 

 are subdivided into sandjaks, and these into 

 kazas. Over each vilayet is placed a vali, or 

 governor, who is assisted by a council. 



AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the 

 Turkish Empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 

 before the war of J 877-78, was estimated to 



