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LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1884. (NORWAY KUSSIA.) 



latter had translated Shakespeare into Italian 

 with a good measure of success. Both belonged 

 to the school of Manzoni, and were distin- 

 guished for the high moral and religious tone 

 of their writings. The new school of poetry in 

 Italy, on the other hand, is noted for its avowed 

 enmity to Christianity and all that Christianity 

 involves. It declares itself without hope, af- 

 firms lite to be for suffering, despairs of Italy, 

 and complains that she is incapable of revolu- 

 tion and regeneration. This school looks to 

 Foscolo and Leopardi as its genii, and loves to 

 worship at their shrines. Carducci and Rapi- 

 sardi are representative verse-makers of this 

 school, and in the last poem of Rapisardi's, 

 entitled " Giobbe " (the patriarch Job), he 

 shows himself to be fiercely opposed to every- 

 thing that is believed in religion, or that exists 

 in society. The dramatic harvest is poorer 

 than the lyrical. The year has been also un- 

 productive of novels. Some tales based on the 

 principles and processes of the French school 

 of Zola, and some others of a better sort, con- 

 stitute the chief outcome, showing that the 

 novel in Italian literature is in a state of deca- 

 dence. 0. Guliani, whose life was devoted to 

 the interpretation of Dante, has been removed 

 by death. The labors of Prof. d'Ancona, and 

 Prof. Bartoli, on the great national poet, indi- 

 cate ability and skill of a high order. The 

 chief work, however, in literary criticism, is 

 that of Prof. Rajna, entitled " Le Origini della 

 Epopea Francese," which obtained for the au- 

 thor a prize of 10,000 francs. In history there 

 appears to be but little talent employed. Crit- 

 ics affirm that existing writers in this depart- 

 ment are, as a rule, inferior to second-rate con- 

 temporary historians in England. De Leva's 

 work on Charles V has reached its fourth vol- 

 ume, and is regarded as a production of value, 

 although put together in poor style ; other writ- 

 ers in this department hardly deserve to be 

 named, with the exception perhaps of Tocco on 

 the heresies of the middle ages, and Taberrini 

 in his lives and recollections of distinguished 

 Italians of the present century. One or two 

 volumes, which must be regarded as on the 

 border- land between history and fiction, have 

 appeared from the pen of De Amicis. Other 

 writers have dealt in similar wise with topics 

 partly literary, partly scientific. Periodical 

 literature flourishes with fair success, and the 

 number of publications in the way of reviews, 

 magazines, and weekly journals, is quite large, 

 and gives promise of better things for literature. 

 Norway. Novels and novelettes, during 1884, 

 were unusually numerous in Norway, and writ- 

 ten largely with distinct purpose in view. 

 Bjornson, after years devoted to the drama, has 

 returned to his old field, and has produced a 

 remarkable novel. In this he dwells upon the 

 indulgence accorded to immoralities of men, as 

 opposed to the judgment passed on women for 

 similar transgressions. He also discusses the 

 remedy, and urges that it must come from wom- 

 en being educated to take their full share in 



the duties and responsibilities of life. Jonas 

 Lie and A. Kielland have written novels deal- 

 ing with other not less important social ques- 

 tions of the day. Garborg's "Tales" are 

 among the best of the year's productions. The 

 drama is but slightly represented this year by 

 Ibsen's "The Wild Duck" and H. J. Broch's 

 "Gold> Scientific literature of the year is 

 also of small account, being chiefly marked by 

 essays and monographs on Norway and Nor- 

 wegian history and biography. The rise and 

 progress of the theatre in Norway are treated 

 of by T. Blanc, and it seems to be proved that 

 the country produces artists worthy of ranking 

 among the best in their profession. 



Poland. This year was marked by the cele- 

 bration of the three hundredth anniversary of 

 the death of one whom the Poles regard as a 

 prince of poets, viz., Johann Kochanowski. 

 He was the first great poet in Polish literature, 

 and the commemoration of his death called 

 forth numerous publications in verse as well 

 as prose in reviews and other periodicals. A 

 monumental edition of his works, with ex- 

 planatory notes and criticism, was also issued, 

 and a literary congress was held at Cracow, 

 where Kochanowski was eulogized, and dis- 

 cussions were held as to the condition of lit- 

 erature in much-depressed Poland. It is point- 

 ed out, as a strange irony of destiny, that 

 J. I. Kraszewski, the chief representative of 

 national literature, should be compelled to 

 spend his old age as a state prisoner in the 

 Prussian fortress of Magdeburg ; nevertheless, 

 Kraszewski is very prolific, and has continued 

 to furnish at intervals additions to his numer- 

 ous historical novels. New novels this year 

 have been produced by T. T. Jez, H. Sienkie- 

 wicz, and P. Bykowski. These are spoken of 

 in high terms by the critics and reviewers. 

 Several writers have brought out collections of 

 their tales and novelettes, and the social ques- 

 tions of the day have received due attention. 

 To the drama there have been contributions 

 this year that indicate talent and skill, from 

 Zalewski, Swiencicki, Madame Meller, etc. Be- 

 sides these, two or three collections of lyric 

 poems have been published. In history little 

 of moment has appeared. Several biographical 

 monographs are timely and valuable, and M. 

 Straszewski has supplied an elaborate work 

 "On the Origin and Development of Pessi- 

 mism in India." The record of the year is not 

 certainly very encouraging, but the situation is 

 not by any means without hope of better things. 



Russia. The record of Russian literature 

 during 1884 is meager and unsatisfactory, not 

 unlike in this latter respect to that of the civil 

 and political condition of the empire of the 

 Czar. The chief literary events of note are 

 the appearance of the first volume of the cor- 

 respondence of Ivan Turgenieff, and the pub- 

 lication of a " Literary Miscellany," edited by 

 the Literary Society of Russia in commemora- 

 tion of their twenty-fifth anniversary. Tur- 

 genieff's correspondence, as far as issued, is 





