762 TODLEBEN, COUNT EDUARD. 



TURKEY. 



and auxiliary batteries, infantry positions from 

 which Russian sharpshooters hindered the ad- 

 vance of the enemy's works. The temporary 

 earthworks that had been thrown up with 

 such speed on the south side of Sebastopol 

 were thus held for eleven months. The de- 

 fense was so brilliant and so courageous that 

 it created the fallacious impression that earth- 

 works are better than permanent fortifications. 

 The Emperor Alexander II advanced Todleben 

 to the brevet rank of major-general, bestowed 

 the order of St. George of the third class, and 

 had a tablet placed in his honor in the School 

 of Engineers where he studied, then called the 

 St. Nicholas Academy. On June 20, 1855, he 

 was severely wounded by a musket-ball, and in 

 consequence was spared the sight of the storm- 

 ing and fall of Sebastopol on September 8. 

 The Czar approved Gen. Todleben's plans for 

 the fortification of Nikolaiev, which was to 

 take the place of Sebastopol as a naval harbor 

 on the Black Sea. As adjutant of the Grand 

 Duke Nicholas, who commanded the works, he 

 conducted the work at the mouth of the Dnie- 

 per. Subsequently he was called to Cronstadt 

 to superintend the completion of the fortifica- 

 tions against a naval attack. In the years suc- 

 ceeding the war he was very active in the new- 

 ly created post of director of the engineer 

 department of the Ministry of War. On April 

 29, 1860, he became a lieutenant-general, and 

 a year later chief of staff to the Grand Duke 

 Nicholas, inspector-general of the engineer 

 service. From 1857 to 1860 he was much oc- 

 cupied with the composition of a great work 

 on the " Defense of Sebastopol." He was pro- 

 moted to be general of engineers Sept. 11, 1869, 

 and afterward was made chairman of the com- 

 mission for the reorganization of the siege- 

 artillery. He gave lectures every year in the 

 Engineering Academy on the plans of the 

 principal fortresses, and directed the manosu- 

 vres of the sapper brigade. He composed a 

 work on the general principles of the attack 

 and defense of fortresses, and left materials for 

 a work on mining tactics. He took many trips 

 abroad to study the system of fortification in 

 other countries, and was most pleased with the 

 modern German manner. When the Turkish 

 war of 1877 began, Gen. Todleben received no 

 command in the field army, being passed over 

 through army intrigues ; but when two months 

 were spent in vain efforts to carry Osman 

 Pasha's improvised fortifications at Plevna, the 

 Emperor ordered him to the seat of war to 

 take a general advisory position in the direc- 

 tion of the operations. Under his direction 

 the place was regularly besieged, the commu- 

 nications of the defenders cut off, and the gar- 

 rison forced by lack of supplies to the brave 

 effort of December 10, to break through the 

 Russian lines, which was frustrated by Todle- 

 ben's arrangement of rifle-pits, trenches, bat- 

 teries, and redoubts, and the rapid concentration 

 of the Russian artillery-fire and infantry forces 

 which drove back the Turks and compelled the 



surrender of the entire army. " Gen. Todleben, 

 after performing other important services dur 

 ing the war, was intrusted on April 28, 1878, 

 with the command of the army remaining in 

 Turkey. After the conclusion of the Peace of 

 Berlin he was appointed Governor-General of 

 Odessa, April 7, 1879, made a hereditary 

 count, and from 1880 to 1884 he was Governor- 

 General of Wilna, Kovno, and Grodno. 



TONIC SOL-FA. See Music. 



TRAUMATICENE. See DEUGS, NEW. 



TUBERCULOSIS. See page 663. 



TURKEY, an empire in Europe and Asia. 

 The fundamental laws are derived from the 

 precepts of the Koran and the Multeka. When 

 not in conflict with the sacred Mohammedan 

 laws, the will of the Sultan is absolute. The 

 Constitution proclaimed by Abdul-Hamid, Dec. 

 23, 1876, is modeled upon European forms of 

 government; but, like the previous Constitu- 

 tion of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, it has not been 

 carried into effect. The reigning Sultan IB 

 Abdul-Hamid II, born Sept. 22, 1842, who suc- 

 ceeded to the throne upon the deposition of 

 his brother Murad, Aug. 31, 1876. 



The executive and legislative authority is ex- 

 ercised under the Sultan by the Grand Vizier, 

 who is the head of the temporal government, 

 and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the chief in- 

 terpreter of the Koran and head of the Ulema, 

 or council summoned to expound the laws. 



The Grand Vizier is Said Pasha; the Sheik- 

 ul-Islam, Ahmed Essad Effendi ; the President 

 of the Council of Ministers, Akif Pasha ; the 

 Minister of War, Ghazi Osman Pasha; the 

 Minister of Foreign Affairs, Assym Pasha ; the 

 Minister of the Interior, Edhem Pasha. (For 

 area and population, see " Annual Cyclopaedia " 

 for 1883.) 



Commerce. The total imports in 1880-'81 

 were valued at 1,784,750,000 piasters (1 piaster 

 =4-3 cents), against 1,931,403,524 piasters in 

 1879-'80; the exports, 930,000,000 piasters, 

 against 836,209,246. The imports of cereals 

 in 1879-'80 were 291,096,000 piasters in value, 

 exports 83,294,000 ; imports of alcoholic bev- 

 erages 38,436,000, exports 5,773,000 piasters; 

 imports of groceries 150,945,000, exports 6<" 

 162,000 piasters; imports of seeds and fruit 

 12,889,000, exports 242,625,000 piasters; ii 

 ports of animals and animal food-products 77,- 

 083,000, exports 15,082,000 piasters ; imports 

 of fuel 21,309,000, exports 771,000 piasters; 

 imports of minerals 4,453,000, exports 2,135,- 

 000 piasters ; imports of rnetals, raw and part- 

 ly manufactured, 66,564,000, exports 1,242,000 

 piasters; imports of skins, hair, and leather 

 53,795,000, exports 43,813,000 piasters; im- 

 ports of textile materials 3,710,000, exports 

 133,761,000 piasters; imports of timber 11,- 

 345,000, exports 6,228,000 piasters; imports 

 of yarns and textile manufactures 907,060,000, 

 exports 61,575,000 piasters ; imports of other 

 manufactured articles 146,090,000, exports 21,- 

 561,000 piasters; imports of drugs, oils, etc., 

 127,011,000 ; exports 186,347,000 piasters ; im- 



