TURKEY. 



725 



distinguished KiiL'lish engineers, Lieut. -Col. 

 Bickncll, U. !:. (lu-t.i. Tin- shows apian for 

 defending the Long Island Sound entrance of 

 Ni-u York harbor. It is. of course, different 

 fr-nii I lit- plant of tin- United States official 

 mining chart, hut is sound and skillful. It is 

 ba-ed on the following principles: First, that 

 tlu> mines should be scattered in groups as ir- 

 regularly as may be compatible with their pro- 

 tection by light artillery and quick-firing guns 

 mounted in proper emplacements; second, that 

 they should be deep and narrow in plan, concen- 

 trated in the channels, with the center of each 

 channel mined more than the sides; third, that 

 they should extend right through the defense to 

 the very last intrenchment. 



To provide against a strong land attack in co- 

 operation with that of the navy the topography 

 of the region would force the erection of strong 

 lines of earthworks at least two miles in the 

 rear on both shores, thus preventing either Fort 

 Schuyler or Willett's Point being taken in reverse. 

 All the mining stations would be well within 

 these interior Tines. All the navigable waters 

 to the west of Hewlett's Point and Elm Point 

 would be mined. The firing and observation 

 stations would be located on the north side. 

 In the immediate front of the forts self-acting 

 mines, charged with heavy loads of dynamite or 

 gelatin would be used. The mining casemate 

 would be located somewhat northwest of Fort 

 Schuyler. far enough to be clear of the smoke 

 and of the enemy's fire on the fort. This firing 

 station would also be the main observation sta- 

 tion with auxiliary at M, or perhaps a point a 

 little farther from shore and less liable to boat 

 attack at night. Four groups of mines converge 

 on M, and the cables would be carried from that 

 point to the mining casemate on Throgg's Neck. 

 The two stations would be connected by cable 

 containing separate cores for telephoning and 

 telegraphing. These mines, being spread over a 

 considerable extent of water, would be most use- 

 ful against ships that might engage the forts at 

 battering range. Other groups of mines to be 

 fired from the same station might be planted 

 between Hart's Island and Hewlett's Point, and 

 another group in mid-channel just north of Wil- 

 lett's Point, if need be. All the side channels 

 would be blocked with self-acting mines or pass- 

 ive obstructions or both, as, for example, be- 

 tween City Island and Redman's Neck and off 

 Elm Point. Abreast of Fort Schuyler would be 

 a mine field, consisting of four groups of electro- 

 contact torpedoes, flanking a fair way or open 

 passage with several pairs of observation ground 

 mines (such as would be exploded solely from 

 shore). Other mine fields in the rear are sup- 

 posed to be planted at Old Ferry Point and at 

 Clawson's Point. An attacking squadron that 

 passed these obstructions and the forts at Fort 

 Schuyler and Willet's Point would be within 

 such cannonading range (5$ miles) of New York 

 as would compel the city to make terms. 



TURKEY, an empire in eastern Europe and 

 western Asia. The Sultan, who rules absolutely 

 under the moral limitations contained in the 

 Mohammedan sacred laws, is the eldest prince of 

 the family of Osman. Abdul Humid II, the 

 thirty-fourth sovereign of the line, born Sept. 21, 

 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who was 



deposed on the ground of lunacy on Aug. 81, 

 1N7<. The Sultan i- H".;;ni/cd as Khalif, or 

 spiritual ruler, beyond the present bounds of the 

 Ottoman Kmpiiv. being guided in his ecc|. 

 cal policy by the Sheikh-ul-Islam and the L'lema, 

 a body composed of eminent doctors of the law. 

 In temporal matters the Sudrazzam. or Grand 

 Vizier, is the chief executive officer. These two 

 functionaries, together with ministers of depart- 

 ments, form the Privy Council or Cabinet of the 

 Sultan, which was composed in the beginning of 

 1898 as follows: Grand Vizier, Djevad Pasha; 

 Sheikh-ul-lslam, Djemal Eddin Enendi : Minis- 

 ter of Foreign Affairs, Said Pasha: Minister of 

 War, Ki/.a Pasha; Minister of Marine, Hassan 

 Pasha; Minister of the Interior, Halil Rifat 

 Pasha; Minister of Public Works, Commerce, 

 and Agriculture, Suhdi Pasha; Minister of Jus- 

 tice. Hussein Riza Pasha; Minister of Finance, 

 Nazif Effendi ; Intendant of Evkafs, or property 

 consecrated to the mosques and charitable uses, 

 Galib Pasha; Minister of Education, Sihni 

 Pasha. During the year Zuhdi Pasha became 

 Minister of Education, and Tevfik Pasha, Minis- 

 ter of Public Works. 



Citizens of Occidental countries are privileged 

 throughout the Turkish Empire, under the capitu- 

 lations, to be tried under their own laws by a tri- 

 bunal presided over by their consuls in cases 

 where Turkish subjects are not concerned, and 

 where they are a dragoman of the consulate 

 watches over the trial and sees that the sentence 

 is duly executed if it goes against the Turk ; if 

 not, the consulate looks after its execution. 



Finances. The duties on liquors, salt, 

 stamped paper, fishing, and silk raising, the to- 

 bacco monopoly, and tithes and customs duty on 

 Persian tobacco, the Eastern Roumelian tribute, 

 and the surplus taxes from the island of Cyprus 

 are all pledged for the payment of the unified 

 debt, which amounts to 92,225,827. The net 

 receipts from these sources in 1890 were 1,942,- 

 562 Turkish (1 Turkish 100 piasters $4.50). 

 Adding the Roumelian railroad, or Turkish lot- 

 tery, debt, the total foreign debt amounts to 

 106,437,234 sterling. 



Commerce. The value of the total import* 

 in 1890 was 2,291,434 piasters, and of the exports 

 1,283,647,000 piasters. Of the imports, 992,278,- 



000 piasters were from Great Britain, 460,670.000 

 piasters from Austria-Hungary, 283,360,000 pias- 

 ters from France, 170,304,000 piasters from Rus- 

 sia, and between 50,000,000 and 100,000,000 pias- 

 ters from Bulgaria, Persia, and Belgium. Of the 

 exports, 481,802,000 piasters went to Great Britain, 

 :',?3.209,000 piasters to France, 103,945,000 pias- 

 ters to Austria-Hungary, 68,565,000 piasters to 

 Egypt, 55,421,000 piasters to Italy, and 51,206,- 



000 1 piasters to Greece. The imports from the 

 United States were 7,469.000 piasters, and the ex- 

 ports to the United States 18,268,000 piasters in 

 value. The principal imports were : Linens for 

 207,700,000 piasters, sugar for 15 1,400.000 pias- 

 ters, cereals for 180,500,000 piasters, pique for 

 127,000,000 piasters, woolens and cottons for 

 115.900,000 piasters, cotton yarns for 118,100,000 

 piasters, and coffee for 88.760.000 piasters. The 

 principal exports were: Cereals for 185,800,000 

 piasters, raw silk for 102,000,000 piasters, raisins 

 for 98,600,000 piasters, opium for 70.300,000 

 piasters, coffee for 52,200,000 piasters, skins and 



