PHYSICAL CLIMATE. 511 



fields. Yet in England, wheat was at this time sold so low as three shillings and four- 

 pence a quarter. 



In 1344, it was clear frost from November to March, and all the rivers in Italy were 

 frozen over. 



In 1392, the vineyards and orchards were destroyed by the frost, and the trees torn to 

 pieces. 



The year 1408 was one of the coldest winters ever remembered. Not only the Danube 

 was frozen over, but the sea between Gothland and Oeland, and between Norway and 

 Denmark ; so that wolves, driven from their forests, came over the ice into Jutland. In 

 France, the vineyards and orchards were destroyed. 



In 1423, both the North Sea and the Baltic were frozen. Travellers passed on foot 

 from Lubeck to Dantzic. In France, the frost penetrated into the cellars. Corn and 

 wine failed, and men and cattle perished for want of food. 



The successive winters of 1432, 1433, and 1434 were uncommonly severe. It snowed 

 forty days without interruption. All the rivers in Germany were frozen ; and the very 

 birds took shelter in the towns. The price of wheat rose, in England, to twenty-seven 

 shillings a quarter, but was reduced to five shillings in the following year. 



In 1460, the Baltic was frozen, and both foot and horse passengers crossed over the ice 

 from Denmark and Sweden. The Danube, likewise, continued frozen two months ; and 

 the vineyards in Germany were destroyed. 



In 1468, the winter was so severe in Flanders, that the wine distributed to the soldiers 

 was cut in pieces with hatchets. 



In 1544, the same thing happened again, the wine being frozen into solid lumps. 



In 1548, the winter was very cold and protracted. Between Denmark and Rostock, 

 sledges drawn by horses or oxen travelled over the ice. 



In 1564, and again in 1565, the winter was extremely severe all over Europe. The 

 Scheldt froze so hard as to support loaded waggons for three months. 



In 1571, the winter was severe and protracted. All the rivers in France were covered 

 with hard and solid ice ; and fruit-trees even in Languedoc were killed by the frost. 



In 1594, the weather was so severe, that the Rhine and the Scheldt were frozen, and 

 even the sea at Venice. 



The year 1608 was uncommonly cold, and snow lay of immense depth even at Padua. 

 Wheat rose in the "Windsor market from 36 to 56 shillings a quarter. 



In 1621 and 1622, all the rivers of Europe were frozen, and even the Zuider Zee. A 

 sheet of ice covered the Hellespont; and the Venetian fleet was choked up in the lagoons 

 of the Adriatic. 



In 1655, the winter was very severe, especially in Sweden. The excessive quantities 

 of snow and rain which fell did great injury in Scotland. 



The winters of 1658, 1659, and 1660 were intensely cold. The rivers in Italy bore 

 heavy carriages ; and so much snow had not fallen at Rome for several centuries. It was 

 in 1658, that Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little Belt over the ice from Holstein to 

 Denmark, with his whole army, foot and horse, followed by the train of baggage and 

 artillery. During these years, the price of grain was nearly doubled in England ; a 

 circumstance which contributed, among other causes, to the Restoration. 



In 1670, the frost was most intense in England and in Denmark, both the Little and 

 the Great Belt being frozen. 



In 1684, the winter was excessively cold. Many forest trees, and even the oaks in 

 England, were split by the frost. Most of the hollies were killed. Coaches drove along 

 the Thames, which was covered with ice eleven inches thick. Almost all the birds 

 perished. 



