202 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



/, the line h m, and through g the line h n ; from /, with the 

 radius / b, draw the arc b i ; from g, with the radius g a, draw the 

 arc a k ; and from h, with the radius h i, draw the arc i & ; 

 afeibwill be the arch required. It will be noticed that the 

 radiation of the joints of the stones composing these various 

 arches, is to the centres from ivhich the cwcs themselves are drawn. 

 We give these few instances of the principles upon which arches 

 are constructed, in order to assist the pupil when drawing a 

 building from the object, or from a copy where these facts are 

 not indicated by additional lines, to understand at once how ho 

 is to proceed in free-hand drawing, when placing his points of 

 direction or arrangement. "VVe shall have frequent occasion to 

 seek for help in Geometrical Problems, as they so materially 

 assist us in our explanations, and we hope the pupil also in 

 comprehending them ; we desire, therefore, that the pupil will 

 practically go through the few problems given, in order to fix 

 the principles of construction permanently in his mind. To 

 draw an arch in perspective that is, in a retiring position the 

 points of the arch and the points which help us in the construc- 

 tion must all be used, as they are when the arch (like Figs. 51 

 to, 55) is in a parallel position. We will first give an example 

 of a single retiring arch (Fig. 56), and then a group of them 

 under different arrangements. Draw the horizontal line H L, and 

 the line a b; from a draw a line to the v p ; this wiH determine 

 the length of the line c d ; these are the perpendicular heights 

 from which the arch springs. To find the centre, e, draw c b and 

 a d, draw e g, and mark /, the height of the arch. The difficulty 

 will be to find the point p in the curve fa, this curve not being 

 so straight as/c; through/ draw the line mk from the vanish- 

 ing point ; continue d c to m, and b a to Jc; draw the curve /c, 

 observing its distance from the line (or chord) cf; draw mi, 

 cutting the curve / c in r, draw i k ; through r from the v p draw 

 the line o n, cutting U i in p ; fp a will be then the course of the 

 curve to form the remainder of the arch ; the outer edge of the 

 arch, t m g k I, can be understood from the drawing ; all the 

 joints of the arch will radiate, as in Fig. 54, those fooin a to g 

 in c, and, those from c to g in a ; the horizontal lines of the 

 wall will vanish, as previously explained, at the point v p. If 

 the arch had been a semi-circular one, the joints of the arch 

 would then have radiated in the perspective centre i. So the 

 pupil will see that to accomplish the difficulties of a retiring 

 arch, he must first dot in that which may be termed the scaffold- 

 ing or perspective, and build his arch upon it. 



Fig. 57 represents the interior of a tower having recesses 

 crowned by pointed arches. After the instructions given for 

 the single arches, it will not be difficult to understand the 

 principles of drawing these. 



LESSONS IN LATIN. VII. 



NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION, ETC. 



THE second declension is known by the ending of the genitive 

 singular in i. The terminations of the nominative are us, er, 

 ir, and um ; of these terminations us, er, ir, are masculine, and 

 um is neuter; that is, nouns ending in us, er, ir, are of the 

 masculine gender, and nouns ending in urn are of the neuter 

 gender. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



Sign i in the Genitive Singular. 



CASE-ENDINGS. 

 LATIN. ENGLISH. LATIN. ENGLISH. 



Coses. Singular. Cases. Plural. 



N. tts, 6r, Ir, am, (subject) N. I, &, (subject) 



G. i, of G. orum, of 



D. 6, to or for. D. is, to or. for. 



Ac. um, (object) Ac. 6s, a, {objeet) 



V. 6, 6r, Ir, iim, 0! V. I, a, 01 



Ab. 6, by, etc. Ab. Is by, u-ith or/i-om. 



A few remarks will make the meaning of the above table 

 clear. First, let us speak of the singular. In the nominative 

 there are four terminations. The arrangement is meant to 

 show that of all these four i is the genitive-ending, and o the 

 dative-ending. In the nominative plural, there are two ter- 

 minations. The arrangement is meant to show that of both 

 these orum is the genitive-ending, and is the dative-ending. 

 The dative-ending and the ablative-ending is the same, being in 

 the singular o, and in the plural -is. In both the singular and 



the plural, three cases are alike in nouns ending in um. These 

 three cases are the nominative, the accusative, and the vocative, 

 which in the singular end in um, and in the plural in a. 



I subjoin an instance of each of the four terminations, thus: 

 hortus, a. garden, has the first termination ; puer, a boy, the 

 second ; vir, a man, the third ; bellurn, war, the fourth. 



Coses. 



N. 



G. 



D. 



Ac. 



V. 



EXAMPLES IN THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

 Singular. 



hortus, garden, puer, a boy. vir, a man. bellum, war. 



horti, of a garden, pueri, of a boy. viri, of a man. belli, of war. 



horto, to a garden, puero, to a boy. viro, to a man. bello, to war. 



hortum, a garden, puerum, a boy. viritm, a man. bellum, war. 



horte, garden/ puer, boy/ vir, man.' bellum, Owar! 



Ab. horto, by a garden, puero, by a boy. viro, by a man. bello, by war. 



Cases. Plural. 



N. horti, gardens. pueri, boys. viri, men. bella, wars. 



G. hortorum, of gar- pueromm, of virorum, of bellorum, of 



dens. boys. men. wars. 



D. hortis, to gardens, pueris, to boys, viris, to men. bellis, to wars. 



Ac. hortos, gardens. pueros, boys. viros, men. bella, wars. 



V. horti, gardens/ pueri, boys! viri, men.' bella, wars.' 



Ab. hortis, by gardens, pueris, by boys, viris, by men. bellis, by u-ars. 



In ager, afield, and some other nouns, the c is rejected in all 

 the cases except the nominative and vocative singular. Thus, 

 ager makes in the genitive singular agri : 



Cases. Singular. Cases. Plural. 



N. ager, a field. N. agri, fields. 



G. agri, of a field. G. agrorum, of fields. 



D. agro, to a field. D. agris, to yields. 



Ac. agrum, a field. Ac. agros, fields. 



V. ager, field I V. agri, yields .' 



Ab. agro, by a yield. Ab. agris, by fields. 



Adjectives have terminations similar to the nouns of the first 

 and second declension. Thus, bonus, good, is declined like 

 hortus, a garden, in the following manner : 



Cases. Singular. Cases. Plural. 



N. bonus hortus, a good garden. N. boni horti, good gardens, [dens. 



G. boni horti, of a good garden. G. bonorum hortorum, of good gar- 



D. bono horto, to a good garden. D. bonis hortis, to good garde?is. 



Ac. bonum hortum, a good garden. Ac. bonos hortos, good gardens. 



V. bone horte, good garden .' V. boni horti, good gardens ! 



Ab. bono horto, by a good garden. Ab. bonis hortis, by good gardens. 



Write out the following adjectives and nouns according to 

 these models : 



EXEKCISE 21. LATIN-ENGLISH. 



1. Boni viri bonos pueros amant. 2. Boni pueri amantur a bonis 

 viris. 3. Bonus puer scholam ama',, 4. Boni magistvi bonorum 

 puerorum amantur. 5. Estne tibi bonus magister ? 6. Funestum 

 est bellum. 7. Est mihi bona arnica. 8. Pueri sunt in schola. 9. 

 Nonne sunt pueri in schola ? 10. Peregrin! multi in Britanniam 

 navigaut. 11. Aper amici mei est magnus. 12. Est ludus in ripa. 

 13. Discipuli epistolas amant. 14. Banse sunt in ripis. 15. Caper est 

 magnus. 16. Bella funesta sunt in insula. 



EXERCISE 22. ENGLISH-LATIN. 



i. I love good scholars. 2. Good scholars are loved by good men. 

 3. Dost thou love a friend ? 4. I have a boar. 5. Thou hast a goat. 

 6. The goats are on the river's bank. 7. A great and deadly war is 

 in the island. 8. Many fields are in Britain. 9. Boars are often 

 deadly. 10. O men, do you love the boys ? 11. My friends do not 

 love strangers. 12. Boys love play. 13. Do boys love play ? 14. 

 Have you a female friend ? 15. I have not a large boar. 16. The 

 letter of my female friend is in the garden. 



We are now in a condition to decline and study adjectives of 

 what are called three terminations ; as, amplus, ampla, amplum, 

 large or spacious. Amplus, you see, is like hortus ; ampla is 

 like mensa ; and amplum is like bellum. In fact, amplus is of 



