330 



THE POPULAK EDUCATOR. 



further into this very interesting inquiry, but refrain, from a 

 desire not to present too many difficulties at present. Fig. 80 ii 

 an example of the rule set forth by Fig. 79. It will be observed 

 that the dotted lines representing the sun's inclination, deter- 

 mine the extent of the cast shadow of the buildings on the 

 ground ; and according to the heights of the buildings, so is the 

 extent of their shadows : the shadow of the chimney is on the 

 roof, which being above the eye cannot be seen. Let us again 

 remind the pupil that the tone of the cast shadow on the ground 

 is darker than the broad shadow on the walls. Observe when 

 the shadow of a perpendicular object is cast horizontally on the 

 ground, and is found to be equal in length to the height of that 

 object, then the inclination of the sun's rays is at an angle of 45. 

 Therefore, to determine the extent of a shadow caused by the 

 sun's inclination at 45, we have simply to make the object and 

 its shadow of the same length ; should the sun's rays be at any 

 other angle, the method, as shown in the problem Fig. 79, of 

 first constructing the angle, must be adopted. The dotted hori- 

 zontal retiring lines from the shadows in Fig. 77 and Fig. 78, 

 meet on the H L, or line of sight, at the vanishing point of the 

 sun's direction ; whilst the inclined dotted lines from the top 

 of the post to the extremity of the shadow, are drawn from 

 the vanishing point of the sun's elevation, in one case above, in 

 the other below, the line of sight. We merely mention this, 

 and purposely decline giving any further rules at present for 

 the construction of shadows, asking the pupil patiently to wait 

 until he is a little more advanced, for fuller and more direct 

 information, with a promise on our part that he shall not be 

 left without proof and further instruction upon these interesting 

 points. In the case of Fig. 81, the sun is behind us to the left, 

 and therefore in front of the picture ; cast shadows are thrown 

 upon the projecting walls and on the ground : this hint will re- 

 mind the pupil of their difference of tone. In working a shadow 

 cast on the ground, we recommend the practice of drawing the 

 lines of the shadow (that is, the shading) horizontally, so that the 

 retiring shadows will then appear horizontal on a like surface : if 

 the lines of the work were drawn in the direction of the vanish- 

 ing point to which the shadow retires, the shadow would then 

 appear to be inclined to the horizon, similar to the roof of a 

 housej or to a board placed upon an edge and leaning against a 

 wall. Cast shadows on perpendicular planes, such as upright 

 walls, should be worked perpendicularly. As a general rule, 

 vve may decide that the working of a shadow should always be 

 with especial reference to the position or inclination of the 

 object upon which it is cast, whether it be perpendicular, hori- 

 zontal, or inclined, so that the lines of the shading, though 

 representing the shadow, should also represent the character of 

 the ground, object, or plane upon which the shadow is cast. 



LESSONS IN LATIN. XL 



SUBSTANTIVES of the fourth declension have in the nominative 

 two case-endings, one in its, the other in u. The nouns which 

 end in us are for the most part masculine ; those which end in 

 u are neuter. The u belongs to the stem. With this u are 

 blended the case-endings of the genitive and ablative singular, 

 and the nominative and accusative plural ; thus u and is become 

 us in the genitive singular ; u and c become u in the ablative 

 singular ; u and es become its in the nominative and accusative 

 plural. The fourth conjugation, then, is only a contracted form 

 of the third ; contracted, I say, that is shortened, as when u 

 and s are melted together to form us, the case-ending of the 

 genitive singular. 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



Sign us in the Genitive Singular. 



CASE-ENDINGS. 



Singular. 



Cases. ar. and r. 



N. as 



G. us 



D. ai or u 



Ac. am 



V. as 



Ab. u 



us 



u 



u 



u 



u 



Cases. 

 N. 

 G. 

 D. 

 Ac. 

 V. 

 Ab. 



Plural. 

 M. and F. 

 us 

 Mm 

 Ibus 

 us 

 us 

 Ibus 



N. 



as. 

 aam 



Ibus 



as 

 as 



Ibiis 



The following words have in the dative and ablative plural 

 tibus instead of ibus; namely, ticus, f., a needle; arcus, m., a bow; 

 artus, m., a limb ; partus, m., a birth or offspring ; lacus, m., a 



lalce or inland sea ; quercus, f ., an oak ; spccus, m., a cave or 

 grotto ; tribus, f., a tribe; pecu, n., cattle; veru, n., a spit. 



As u belongs to the stem, ubus is the regular form in the 

 dative and ablative plural ; but the u has been set aside by tho 

 connecting vowel i, as in fruct-i-bus. 



EXAMPLE. Fructus, in., fruit; cornu, n., a horn. 



Cases. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 



N. fructas, fruit. fructus, fruits. cornu, a horn. corntia, horns. 

 G. fructus, of fruit, fructaani, of fruits cornus, ofahorn. cornaam,o//iorns 

 D. f ructul, to fruit, fructi'bus, to fruits, cornu, to a horn, cornibus, to horns 

 Ac.fructdm, fruit, fructus, fruits. cornu, a Iwrn. coriiua, horns. 

 V. fructus, fruit ! fructus, fruits! coruu, horn! cornii5, floras.' 

 Ab.fructu, by fruit, fructibus, by fruits coruu, by a Iwrn. cormbiis,b.;;ioni3 



Domus, f., a luwsc, partakes of the second as well as the fourth 

 declension : thus, from the second, it has the ablative singular 

 in o, as domo, and one form of the genitive plural in arum, aa 

 domorwm ; from the fourth declension, it has most of ita other 

 cases. It is declined thus : 



Domus, us, f., a house. 



N. 



G. 



D. 



Ac. 



V. 



Ab. 



Singular. 



douius. 



domus. 



doinui. 



domum. 



domus. 



domo. 



N. 



G. 



D. 



Ac. 



V. 



Ab. 



Plural. 

 domus. 



domuum or doruorum. 

 douiibus. 



domes (rarely domus). 

 domus. 

 domibus. 



Domus has also domi, genitive singular ; but domi is not used 

 except in the sense of at home; with domi, you may connect 

 other words, as, domi tua3, at tUy liouse; domi alienaa, at 

 another's Itouse. 



VOCABULARY. 



EXERCISE 35. ENGLISH-LATIN. 



1. Lusus gratus est pueris. 2. Varia sunt genera lusus. 3. Pueri 

 libenter indulgent lusui. 4. Nonne pueris gratus est lusus ? 5. Lusus 

 est mihi gratus. 6. Tibi est lusus vehementer gratus. 7. Viri graves 

 evltant lusus pueriles. 8. O lusus, quam suaviter animos puerorum 

 deler.tas ! 9. Eeges non delectautur lusu puerili. 10. Sensus suut 

 acres. 11. Acres milii sunt secsus. 12. Vis seasuum est magna. 13. 

 Estne sensuum vis magna. 14. Vir fortis non succuuibit sensibus 

 doloris. 15. Acres sensus liabent bestias. 16. O seusus, quantas 

 voluptates hominibus paratis ! 17. Animalia prsedita suut sensibus. 



EXERCISE 36. ENGLISH-LATIN. 



1. The feeling of pain is bitter. 2. Is not the feeling of pain bitter 

 to thee ? 3. The feeling of pain is bitter to all men and to all animals. 

 4. The power of grief is great. 5. The sage is not overcome by tho 

 power of the senses. 6. A brave (fortis) man yields not to grief. 7. 

 Do brave men yield to the power of the senses ? 8. O grief, how dost 

 thou overcome the minds of men! 9. Boys willingly yield to play. 

 10. (There) are many kinds of play. 11. Plays (games) of all kinds aro 

 pleasant to boys and girls. 12. Boyish plays delight not men. 13. 

 Men are not delighted by boyish plays. 14. Boys and men yield to 

 pleasure. 15. How greatly is grief avoided l)y children. 16. Boys 

 delight in bows and arrows. 17. Girls delight in needles. 



There are no adjectives which follow the fourth declension, 

 as there are none which follow the fifth declension. Adjectives 

 follow exclusively the first, the second, and the third declen- 

 sions. Yet nouns of the fourth and of the fifth declensions aro 

 sometimes united with adjectives. In declining nouns and 

 adjectives so united, you must take care to preserve the proper 

 forms of both, and not allow the one to influence the other. 

 To aid you in making the necessary distinctions, I supply 

 instances for practice. 



NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF VAUIOUS DECLENSIONS. 



EXAMPLE. Maturua fructus, m., ripe fruit ; frequens coetus, 



