3G2 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR 



Believing the pupil now to be master of the method of draw- 

 ing 1 a single line under any one of the conditions above named, 

 whether straight or curved, we will proceed to apply them, or 

 rather to combine them so as to form tints required in shading. 

 Of course we can do little for the pupil towards helping him in 

 his judgment regarding the tones of shadows ; his own observa- 

 tion must be his guide in deciding how dark or how light a 

 shadow is. Shadows and tones must be compared with one 

 another, because the circumstances surrounding them will so far 

 influence their intensity that it would be impossible to give rules 

 for shadows under all conditions. They are so varied and so 

 changeable that we can do no more than give him a few general 

 principles to guide his practice. 



We have said before that cast shadows are, for certain reasons 

 already given, generally darker than broad shadows ; we will 

 add now that the highest light and darkest shadow are togetJier ; 

 and as the strength of the light upon an object or collection of 

 objects gradually diminishes, so the depth or intensity of the 

 shadows diminishes also. Take an example : Place a chair 

 near to a window, and another chair in the part of the room 

 farthest from the window ; the light which falls upon the chair 

 near to the window will be much stronger than that which falls 

 upon the farther chair. Observe the broad shadows and the cast 

 shadows from the legs upon the ground, the latter especially, of the 

 first chair. Compare them with the corresponding shadows of the 

 second chair, or that farthest from the window. We venture to 

 say, without more comment, that the pupil will have seen enough 

 from this experiment to satisfy him upon this point. This prin- 

 ciple of the darkest shadow being near to the highest light is 

 found to be the same respecting the shadow on a ball (Fig. 85), 

 or on the side of a column (Fig. 86), and in thousands of casas 

 besides, so numerous that we need not look far for examples. 

 The great difficulty in shading is the management of the half tints. 

 Any one can make an extreme shade of black ; and if the right 

 feeling for half tints and semi-tones is not a natural one some- 

 thing analogous to that of a good ear for music it can oe 

 to a great extent acquired, though in some cases it will demand 

 a much greater amount of practical experience and observation 

 than in others before they begin to perceive the many va- 

 rieties of tone which are spread upon the surface of an object, 

 especially if it be an irregular one. But when we have to add 

 colour in connection with light and shade, we go farther into a 

 field of change and variety that is unbounded. And here is the 

 test of the painter. It is the management of the minor tones 

 which makes all the difference between a first-rate artist and a 

 common country sign-painter. The latter may paint a red cow 

 sufficiently well to answer the purpose of giving a title to the 

 village alehouse. We will grant that he has the ability to make 

 a tolerable representation of the animal in outline, but when he 

 attempts to paint it he will do nothing more than fill up the 

 outline with red, and darken the parts in shade with black, 

 because he can sec nothing further; but the eye of the true 

 artist would seize upon the innumerable tints spread all over the 

 surface the various degrees of colour influenced by the position 

 and strength of the light, some parts more brilliant, some more 

 subdued, intermingled with greys of various hues in every 

 portion added to which are the reflections of colour and of 

 light amongst the shadows, some warm, some cold : in short, to 

 name all the changes and tones that would require his especial 

 attention can only be done by him who is able to paint them. 

 Here, then, is the secret why one painter is greater than 

 another ; and their comparative excellence is determined by their 

 ability to perceive and represent few or many of the infinite 

 varieties of tones scattered over every object in Nature. 



It will be readily seen, on referring to Figs. 85, 86, and 87,where 

 curved lines in working the shadows are used in preference to 

 straight ones, and, on the contrary, where straight are preferred 

 to curved ; curved lines must be used to represent curved sur- 

 faces, either convex or concave. The ball (Fig. 85), is altogether 

 shaded by curved lines, which render such important service in 

 giving effect to rounded forms. Straight lines are the principal 

 composing lines of the shadow on the cylinder (Fig. 86). On 

 account of its uniformity of surface and because it is perpen- 

 dicular, perpendicular lines are employed ; whilst the apparent 

 rotundity of the cylinder is made to depend upon the tone of the 

 shadow rather than upon the lines which compose it; the shado> 

 having its reflection, its deep shade, and its half tint, the last 

 blending into the highest light. As to the proper strength of 



tone to be given to these portions of the shadow, the pupil must 

 be guided by his own judgment, which the more it is exercised' 

 the keener will be his perception of the tone of a shadow or 

 reflection by comparing it with other shadows and reflections, 

 for by comparison only we can undertake to say how dark or 

 how light a tint must be. 



Fig. 87 is drawn from a cast of a geranium leaf, where a 

 mixture of lines is employed, some more curvilineal than others, 

 according to the rotundity of the surface to be copied ; for i 

 must be observed that in proportion as a rounded surface ap 

 proaches the flat, so will it require straighter lines to repre- 

 sent it. 



In a former lesson we mentioned the stump, an instru- 

 ment used for laying on a tint by rubbing ; this may be used 

 for the first instalment of a shadow, that is, for rubbing in 

 a flat tint over the broader and more decided parts of the 

 shadow, the whole being afterwards passed over by the line 

 method. In using the stump, the tint must not be made as dark 

 as the shadow ought to be when finished, nor must it be carried 

 into the half tones uniting the shade with the high light. An 

 effect can be much more readily produced with the stump, but 

 the danger is lest the shadows should be made dirty or cloudy. 

 After a little experience this method will be found to be quicker 

 than doing it altogether by lines, inasmuch as it saves a little 

 labour ; but the shadows must be passed over with lines after 

 the stump has laid the foundation, otherwise all the crispness, 

 clearness of tone, and definite precision of character will be 

 sacrificed. We strongly advise the pupil to provide himself 

 with a few plaster casts of leaves, fruit, and ornament. The 

 advantages of casts are many. They can be placed in any light, 

 and they present so many different views that they may be said 

 to be inexhaustible copies. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. XII. 



DERIVATIONS: PREFIXES (continued). 



PAUSING for a moment in the details of our subject, I would 

 ask you whether you know what words are. Take the word 



father. What is it ? Father, as it stands here on the page, is 

 a combination of straight and curved lines. What does the 

 combination of lines represent? A combination of sounds. 

 What does the combination of sounds represent ? A state of 

 mind ; a mental conception. What does the mental conception 

 represent ? An external object; an external object that has the 

 quality of being a father, or that bears the relation which we 

 designate by the term father. So then the whole connection 

 between an external object and the written or printed name of 

 this book may be set forth thus : Lines make letters ; letters 

 make syllables ; syllables make words ; words represent sounds ; 

 sounds represent ideas ; ideas represent outward objects that 

 is, persons or things. Consequently, objects are the basis of 

 language ; ideas are its essence ; sounds are its medium, and 

 lines are its forms. These outward objects, and internal realities, 

 are set forth by signs, signs made by the mouth signs made- 

 by the hand. The lips, then, and the fingers are the inter- 

 preters of the person. What progress in civilisation is implied 

 in this connection of the pen with the mind and with the universe ; 

 the pen describing, and the press diffusing, so as to be univer; 

 sally understood, the most subtle of all essences ; states of 

 thought and feeling ; and the widest, as well as the wisest of 

 all generalisations which we term the laws of God, or God's 

 own operations in the government of the universe ! The study of 

 language, thus viewed, is the study of the mind of man, as well 

 as the study of the works and the will of God. Deep and mys- 

 terious study, worthy of our best powers, and sure to be 

 attended by an ample reward ! And if the study of language is 

 the study of the human mind, and the Divine mind in their 

 activity and their utterances, then no one who has not made- 

 some proficiency in the study is, or can be, competent to inter- 

 pret or expound man's will or God's will, profane or sacred 

 literature. To resume our subject : 



Olig, of Greek origin (0X1705, pronounced ol'-i-gos, a few), is the 



first part of oligarchy (Greek, ap%rj, pronounced ar'-ke, government), 



government by a few ; oligarch, one of a small number of rulers. 



Omni, of Latin origin (omnis, all), is seen in omniscient (Latin, 



scio, J fonotc), all-knowing ; omnipotent (Latin, potens, powerful), 



I all-powerful ; omnipresent, existing everywhere ; omnivorous, ail- 



I devouring. 



