370 



THE POPULAE EDUCATOR. 



where M. Dubois, of Neufchatel, saw a great number, even to 

 the Atlantic Ocean and to the northern seas. Pausanias de- 

 scribes some of these in Argolis, and recent travellers have seen 

 others in Greece. It is well known that they exist in France, in 

 England, in Norway, and in Sweden, where all these works of 

 early civilisation are known under the name of Celtic and 

 Druidical monuments. America presents numerous examples of 

 similar constructions, which show how rising nations exhibit 

 the same analogies, as their arts are in the process of formation. 



Simple as this system of building is, for it cannot yet be 

 called architecture, we recognise the periods of its commence- 

 ment, its progress, and its development. Thus the most ancient 

 of these edifices, such as were erected by the most ignorant 

 people, were built of enormous stones in the shape which nature 

 gave them. Moreover, they selected those which presented the 

 square form, if they did not give them thia form by manual 

 labour. Stonehenge, in England, exhibits a number of square 

 pillars supporting enormous architraves, the whole appearing to 

 have constituted a large and well-constructed edifice. These 

 evidences of the first attempts of past civilisation are gradually 

 and daily disappearing under the progress of those which are 

 being developed around them. Thus Asia has lost most of her 

 ancient monuments, owing to the early state of her progress 

 in the arts. Africa, for the same reason, presents as few 

 examples, although they are mentioned by ancient authors. 

 Greece and Italy, and their neighbouring islands, only exhibit 

 examples of the same kind in places nearly deserted. The 

 northern countries of Europe alone preserve some, because that 

 civilisation was later there ; and the history of their sudden and 

 unexpected conquests extends only to a period of about two 

 thousand years. In America the later civilisation of the Aztecs 

 (1196) and the Mexicans caused the primitive monuments around 

 them to disappear, by the development of their own. This pro- 

 cess is perfectly analogous to that which took place first in Asia, 

 then in Greece, Africa, and Italy, and which we now see taking 

 place in the western countries, where their materials are used 

 for roads and private buildings. 



This simple and primitive style of architecture appears to 

 have been originally universal, if it was not simultaneous with 

 the progress of civilisation, which marched from east to west ; 

 and has left monuments and edifices so varied as to occasion 

 them to be classified, and have names given to each class. 

 These names are borrowed from the old Celtic tongue, or lan- 

 guage of the Druids. Thus, erections of the first class, which 

 consisted of long stones, erect and isolated (standing singly) like 

 obelisks, were called Peulvans, or Menhirs. Buildings of the 

 second class, consisting of a huge unhewn stone, supported on 

 two or more rough stones set on end on the earth, are called 

 Cromleclis by British archaeologists and Dolmens by French 

 antiquarians. The third class consists of Uncovered Alleys, of 

 upright stones, placed in rows like trees, and occupying a very 

 considerable area, like those of the plain of Carnac, in the 

 department of Morbihan, part of the old province of Brittany, 

 in France. While in the fourth class these long rows of stones 

 assume a circular or elliptical form, and support stones placed 

 on them horizontally so as to form a lintel or architrave. The 

 military constructions of early times appear to have been mounds 

 or artificial hills, at the summit of which there was a shallow 

 excavation, of which the edges formed a rampart. It is certain 

 that in countries where hills naturally occurred they were for- 

 tified in the same way as those which were raised by art. These 

 natural fortifications are still to be seen in the neighbourhood 

 of Athens and the Pirceus, and they were of immense service 

 in the last war of independence. Mankind in a savage or wan- 

 doring state having no instruments for raising the earth or 

 digging ditches, made fortified enclosures with heaped stones, 

 having a double slope. The entrances to these fortresses were 

 defended by artificial hills, placed inside near the gates. 



participle of these verbs undergoes. The feminine termination; 

 of the past participle of the irregular verbs will be found in th< 

 alphabetical table, 62. 



3. The last letter of the feminine termination is always an < 

 mute. 



4. The plural of a past participle not ending with an s it 

 formed by the addition of that letter to the singular, masculin< 

 or feminine. 



5. The participle past, accompanied by the auxiliary verl 

 avoir, never agrees with the nominative or subject [ 134 (3)]. 



Les demoiselles out cliante, The young ladies sang. 



Ces messieurs out lu toute la Those gentlemen read the whole day 

 journee, 



6. The participle past, having etre as its auxiliary verb 

 assumes in its termination the gender and number of the subjec 

 [ 134 (2)]. 



Ma fille est arrivee ce matin, 

 Nos frcres ne sont pas venus, 



My daughter arrived this morning. 

 Our brothers are not come. 



7. The participle, accompanied by the auxiliary verb avoir 

 agrees in gender and number with its direct object or regimi 

 direct [ 2 (2), 42 (4)], when that object precedes it [S 13< 

 (4)]. 



Les dames que nous avons vues, The ladies whom we have seen. 

 Les iettres que nous avons lues, The letters which we have read. 



8. When the regime direct or objective (accusative) follow! 

 the participle, no agreement t,akes place [ 134 (5)]. 



Avez-vous vu les dames ? Have you fecn the ladies ? 



Avons-nous lu les Iettres ? Have we read the letters ? 



9. A participle past never agrees with its regime indirect, o: 

 indirect object (dative or ablative) [ 2 (3), 42 (5)]. 



Les dames a qui nous avons parle, The ladies to whom we have spoken 



10. The participle past used adjectively, that is, without ai 

 auxiliary verb, follows the rule of the adjective [ 66 (3) 

 134 (1)]. 



Des livres Men impriines, Well-printed books. 



11. The participle, preceded by the relative pronoun en 

 remains invariable, although the en should relate to a feminim 

 or plural noun [ 135 (7)]. 



Avez-vous apportd des plumes ? Have you brought pens ? 



J'en ai apportr, I have brought some. 



12. The presence of en does not, however, prevent the agree 

 ment of the participle, when it is preceded by a regime dired 

 [ 135 (7)]. 



Les plumes que j'en ai apportees, Thepens which I have brought fromit 



RESUME OP EXAMPLES. 



Vos sceurs ont-elles c'crit ? 

 Elles ii'ont pas encore ocrit. 



Have your sistei's written 7 

 Tliey have not yet written. 



Les Iettres que nous avous ecrites. The letters which u-e have written. 



Avez-vous ecrit vcs lettres ? 

 Je les ai lues, je les ai ecrites. 

 Les avez-vous apportees ? 

 i Je ne les ai pas apportees. 

 Avez-vous appele ces dames? 

 Je ne les ai pas appelees. 

 Qui avez-vous vu ce matin? 

 Nous avous vu ces demoiselles. 

 Nous les avons vues. 

 Nous ne leur avons pas parle". 

 Avez-vous des livres relies ? 

 J'ai des livres brochds. 



Avez-vous achet^ des pommes ? 

 J'en ai achete'. 

 Nous en avons achete 1 . 

 ' Nous les en avons persuades. 



Haw you written your letters ? 



I have read them, I have written them 



Have you brought them ? 



I have not brought them. 



Have you called those ladies ? 



I have not called them. 



Whom have you seen this morning ? 



We have seen those young ladies. 



We have seen them. 



We have not spoken to them. 



Have you bound books ? 



I have unbound (stitched in pape' 



covers) books. 

 Have you bought apples? 

 I have bought some. 

 We have bought some. 

 We have persuaded them of it. 



VOCABULARY. 



LESSONS IN FRENCH. XXIV. 



SECTION .XLI.-THE PAST PARTICIPLE [ 134]. 



1. THE past participle, which in French forms a part of every 

 compound tense [ 45 (8)], is susceptible of changes in its 

 termination. 



2. The student will find, in the table of the terminations of 

 wie regular verbs [ 60], the different changes which the past 



