LESSONS IN LATIN. 



in the comparison we have seized on those pointa which are of 



greatest importance, we shall find that when wo compare any 



tnimals belonging to theae branches, first to the one type 



iin.l tliun to tho other, in reference to those peculiarities, we hall 



BO difficulty in classifying them either in one division or 



tho otluT. 



A doj,', for iu-tiinco, though a very different animal from a 



fish, is like it in tho points wo have noted. It has a back-bone 



of jointed \. :: i.r.r, and a columnar nervous system. It has 



no segmented extorual skeleton. It liaa but four lim!.-, and its 



ire not paired limbs lying side by side, but are placed one 



above tho other. A dragon-fly is very different from a lobster 



fundamental particulars, but in the essentials named it is 



it. It has a chain of double nerve masses on tho floor of 



its tubular body, crossed by the food canal between tho first and 



second masses ; and so we might run on through tho whole of 



the structure, and show that it was really built upon tho satno 



general plan as tho lobster. 



Tho sub-kiugdom to which the fish belongs is called Vertebrata, 

 a vertebra being the technical name given to one of tho joints 

 of tho back-bone. This name vertebra was given because tho 

 fact that the back-bone was so sub-divided enabled its elements 

 to turn one on another (verto being tho Latin for to turn). 



The lobster belongs to the invertebrate animals, but tho 

 invertebrates include more than one sub-kingdom, and that to 

 which tho lobster belongs was called by Cuvior Articulata, 

 because they are jointed as to external skeleton of both body 

 and limbs. Articnlus is the Latin for a joint. 



If, instead of a dog or a dragon-fly, wo had taken a slug, wo 

 should have found that while tho arrangement of the nervous, 

 blood, vascular, and food systems to one another was quite 

 different from tho fish, and similar to tho lobster, yet we should 

 have found no hard jointed body, no chain of double ganglions 

 on tho floor of the body, and no limbs. This animal, therefore, 

 belongs to neither of these types, though it is, of course, an 

 invertebrate. 



Tho student is now prepared for tho enumeration of the sub- 

 kingdoms and their characters. They are these : 



Mollusca (of ( 3foHusca. 

 Cuvier). \ Afollusccida. 



Vertebrate.. 



Annulosa = Articulata of 

 *4iiuuloula. Cuvier. 



unnymmotrically through the body, their number and position 

 being rery variouu in the different division* of the sob-kingdom. 

 Organ* of locrction, nutrition, and propagation more perfect than 

 those of locomotion and animal life. 



MoUutcoida. Animals baring the general character of tho 

 Mollusca, but distinguished from thorn by baring heart* of a 

 simple saoeulor character without division, or none at all. 

 ciliated tentacles disposed in a circle or horse-shoo shape round 

 tho mouth. 



AnnuUtsa (from annulus, a ring). Animal* with a body com- 

 posed of a longitudinal series of more or less distinctly dereloped 

 ring-like segments, which are more or less repetition* of on* 

 another, according to the lower or higher position of tho species.' 

 The horny or leathery exteriors of these ring* form an cxo- 

 skeleton, to which tho muscles are attached, and which forms a 

 protective envelope to tho body. Nervous system consisting 

 of a double chain of ganglia. Every organ or system of organi 

 bi-laterally symmetrical. Locomotive organs and organs of 

 sense attain in this class a high development. 



Annuloida. Animals somewhat like tho Annulota, bat the 

 perfect form is developed within a ciliated larva. 



Ccelenterata. Animals whoso alimentary canal freely com- 

 municates with their body cavity. Body consisting of two^ 

 foundation membranes of definite cellular structure. 



Protozoa. Animals whose body consists of a Barcode sab- 

 stance, which has no definite cellular structure, bat which is 

 elastic, extensile, and albuminous in composition. They have no 

 nervous system or organs of sense, but have structures called 

 respectively nucleus and contractilo vesicle. 



If tho student finds these descriptions hard to understand, he 

 must wait for explanation till tho following lessons aro before 

 him. It is now necessary to bo concise, even at tho risk of being 

 obscure. 



Cocleiiicrata. 

 Protozoa. 



It should bo noted that tho form in which these are given has 

 a meaning. That the Vertebrata stand at the top of the scale is 

 admitted by all ; tho Protozoa are as unquestionably the lowest 

 animals, and next above them come tho Ccelenterata. It is, how- 

 ever, impossible to determine whether the Mollusca or tho Arti- 

 culata are the higher animals. Tho Molhisca seem, in tho 

 higher members of their branch, to approach most nearly to tho 

 vertebrates, but the higher members of tho branch Articulata 

 are of such beautiful and complicated structure that they cer- 

 tainly cannot be placed lower than the Mollusca. Wo are com- 

 pelled, therefore, to range them side by side, at a like elevation. 

 We proceed to give the characters of the sub-kingdoms : 



1. Vertebrata. Animals, tho main trunk of whoso nervous sys- 

 tem consists of ganglionic matter massed together in the form of 

 a column. It is found on the dorsal (upper) aspect of tho body, 

 its axis lying in tho median vertical plane which divides the 

 animal into two symmetrical halves. This main nervons trunk 

 consists anteriorly of the brain and posteriorly of tho spinal 

 cord. It is usually enclosed in a bony or cartilaijinous cavity 

 formed by the upper arches of the vertebras. The bodies of 

 these vertebrae form the essential portion of an internal bony or 

 cartilaginous (gristly) skeleton. The column thus formed is 

 placed immediately below tho central nervous trunk, and sends 

 upward processes to form a series of dorsal arches to defend tho 

 nervous axis, and downward a series of less perfect arches, in 

 which lie tho circulatory and alimentary organs. Appended to 

 this column, which forms the axis of support and resistance 

 whereon tho rest of the skeleton hinges, are (normally) four 

 limbs, two anterior and two posterior. The blood is rod, and 

 enclosed in vessels. Jaws playing vertically. 



Mollusca (from mollis, soft). Animals with soft bodies enveloped 

 in soft skin, which is constantly moist, which is itself muscular, 

 and to it the muscles are attached. This skin has usually tho 

 p wer of secreting within or upon its tissues a calcareous oxtra- 

 vaBcnlar secretion itt shell). Tho nervons masses are dispersed 



Cases. M. 

 N. qui, who ; 

 G. cujus, whose; 

 D. cui, to whom; 

 Ac. quem, whom ; 

 Ab. quo, bit whom; 



LESSONS IN LATIN. XVI. 



BELA.TIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 



Relative Qui, quas, quod, wlio or which. Interrogative Qois, 

 qua?, quid ? who or which ? 



RELATIVE. 

 Singular. 

 r. x. 



quffl, who; qu5J, which, 



cujus, whose; cujus, o/ which, 



cui, to whom ; cui, to w ;. 



quam, whom ; quod, which, 



qua, by whom ; quo, by which. 



Plural. 



qua;, who; qaffi, which, 



quarutn, whOM; quorum, o/ which, 



quibus, to trhom ; quibus, to which. 



quas, whom ; quse, which, 



quibus, b'j whom. quibut, by which. 



INTERROGATIVE. 



Singular. 



quis ? before a noun, quid ? before a noua, 

 quod? 



cujus ? 



Cui? 



quid 

 quo? 



N. qui, vho ; 



Q. quorum, whose; 



D. quibus, to whom ; 



Ac. quos, whom; 



Ab. quibus, by whom / 



N. quis? 



G. 

 D. 

 Ac. 

 Ab. 



N. 



G. 



D. 



Ac. 



Ab. 



cujus ? 

 cui? 

 quem? 

 quo? 



qui ? 

 quorum ? 

 quibus ? 

 quos? 

 quibus ? 



quro? 

 cujus ? 

 cui? 

 quam? 

 qua? 



Plural, 

 qxwe? 

 quorum P 



quibus? 

 quas? 

 quibus ? 



: ' 

 quorum ? 

 quibus? 

 quae? 

 ., ..' as f 



The preposition cum is sometimes set after tho pronoun; as, 

 quocum, quaoum, quibuscum, \cith trhom, with whidi. 



Qois is repeated so as to form the compound pronoun quis- 

 juis, whosoever. In this case, both parts aro declined thus: 

 quisquis, m.; qnsequre, f. ; quicquid, n. When the neater is 

 used as a substantive it is generally written quidquid. Take 

 as instances : qnoquo modo res habet, tn u-haUvtr way the Ui 

 is ; qnicqnid id est, whatever that is. In quicunqne, whoioecer, 

 tho qui is declined, and to its parts cnnque is added, a* cujus- 

 cunque, quodcunque, etc- 



