N8 IN ITALIAN. 



recognised an that appearing in all existing fish, sate thoso 



ii liav another meaim of being recognised 



\>y the Hcales. Tli -car.. red with scales of bone, 



I, Hliinin;,' enamel, ll.'iieo they are called 



udour). Thin platen liko toaaelated pavement 



tin- whole full. The bony-piko of North America ia a 



living example of tlii claw. Allor these the Placoid (irAo{, a 



upponr. These havo their skin covered with plates of 



enamel, but not of so thick a character as tho ganoid. These 



plates . ,nd vary in ni/.o from OOHBiderabla dfanen- 



a point, liko tho shagreen or thu skin of tho shark. All 



eartilugiiiiiiis lish that is, those which havo no bony skeleton 



except tho fturgeon, urn of this clann. 



remaining two divisions contain recent and present fish. 

 i from KTSIS, KTWOS, a comb) have scales gimped at 

 ono edge, liko those of the perch. The remaining division ia the 

 Oydoid, whose scales are round and horny, liko those of the 

 salmon. In the last two instances the scales overlap each other 

 liko tho slates- of A roof. Fig. 20 represents these varieties of 

 scales. Tho general name of Icthyolite (fish-fossil) is applied 

 to all fish remain*. Fig. 21 indicates the manner in which the 

 ganoid fish are plated. In this instance five broad enamelled 

 scales coat tho back. Fig. 22 is a placoid, in which the plates 

 are much thicker, and arranged like tiles in a pavement. This 

 fish, it will be noticed, is a heterocerc. 



LESSONS IN ITALIAN. XT. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS WITH ABTICLE, ETC., 

 PRECEDING. 



are, besides the article, many other words (numerals, 

 pronouns, and adjectives) pointing out with more or less pre- 

 cision the definite character of a noun, and generally connected 

 .vith it. Some of these are of such primary importance for the 

 very beginnings of reading and conversation, that I consider 

 it useful to present at once their various changes. The de- 

 clension of these words likewise requires that only the three 

 case-signs di, a, and da, should be placed before them. I shall 

 also lay down here, as a general rule in Italian, that any 

 numeral, pronoun, or adjective which points out the definite 

 character of a noun with a sufficient or with a still greater 

 precision than the article itself, renders the latter superfluous, 

 and Huch words are, on the other hand, always accompanied 

 by the article when they do not precisely determine the noun 

 before which they are placed. 



II. NOUNS DECLINED WITH SOME IMPORTANT WORD 



PRECEDING 'THEM. 



Singular. 



U-no scu-do, a shield. 



1)' it- no scu-do, of a shield. 



Ad, u-tio M-ii-do, to a shield. 



U-no scii-do, a shield. 



Da li-no scu-do, from a shield. 



In it-no scii-do, in a shield. 



Con u-no scA-do, with a shield. 



Per li-no scu-do, for a shield. 



Plural. 



Al-cu-ni scil-di, some shields. 

 D' al-cu-ni scii-di, of some shields. 

 Ad al-cii-nt scu-di, to some shields. 

 Al-cA-ni scii-df, some shields. 

 Da (il-cii-)u cu-<li,f rom some shields. 

 Jfn al-cu-ni scu-di, in some shields. 

 C'ia!.cii-niscu-di,withsomo shields 

 Per ai-cu-iii scitdf, for some shields. 



I'u fio-re, a flower. 



If un fio-re, of a flower. 



Ad un j(6-re, to a flower. 



Un fid-re, a flower. 



Da \mfio-re, from a flower. 



In un Jiv-re, in a flower. 



Con un fi6-re, with a flower. 



Per un fio-re, for a flower. 



Al-cu-ni /M-ri, some flowers. 



D 1 al-cu-ni fi6-ri, of some flowers. 



Ad al-ni-ni .mi-rt, to some flowers. 



/ii ji'i-ri, some flowers. 

 Daal-rii-nt/d-ri.from some flowers. 

 In .in some flowers. 



i!-cu-ni^uJ-ri, with some flowers. 

 .tfi6-ri, for somo flowers. 



The word u-no for the masculine, and u-na for the feminine, 

 is considered by many grammarians to be the indefinite article 

 corresponding to a or an in English. It, however, seems to mo 

 2 illogical to call a word so which serves so many purposes, and 

 has so many meanings. It is a word expressing indefinite unity : 

 for example, un li-bi-o. a book, and it-no. cd-sa, a house, express 

 the general idea of any book and any house. It is, moreover, a 

 word expressing definite unity, that is, a numeral : for example, 

 l<'>n-iw, one man and five women ; u-na lib-bra 

 Ire 6n-ce, one pound and throe ounces. It is also frequently a 

 pronoun, having the definite articles lo and la before it signifying 

 the one (masculine and feminine} : for example, V u-no J 

 si, I' dl-fro di no, the one says yes, the other no; V u-na d b61rla, 



V dl-trri the one (woman) is pretty, the other ia ugly. 



These examples, I think, will be sufficient to show that it would 



.itialead to call it 



When u-no cornea before a consonant which ia not the im- 

 pure, wo only say and write v. !/ro, a book ; 

 un ca-vdl-lo, a horse; un vtc-ehia, an ol'i . hen it cornea 

 before tho impure u-no must bo always employed : for example, 

 u-no gpi-ri-to, a spirit; u-no tre-g<j-ne, a sorcerer. When it 

 comes before a noun of the masculine gender commencing with a 

 vowel, the final o of u-no in not pronounced, and in writing an 

 apostrophe is not necessarily used instead : for example, un dr-eo, 

 a bow, arch ; un ce-cfs-so, an excess ; un in-yi'-yno, a gerii 

 <5r-so, a bear ; un u6-mo, a man. The feminine, u-na, generally 

 loses the a, and an apostrophe must be substituted before nouns 

 commencing with a vowel ; for example, un' d-ni-ma, a soul ; 

 er-ba, an herb ; un' 6-ra, an hour ; un im-prtf-sa, an undertaking ; 

 un' un-yhiti, a nail, hoof. In all other cases u-na ia written and 

 pronounced in full. It in obvious that when u-no and t.-nn 

 signify definite or indefinite unity, they can have no plural. 

 The words al-cu-ni, some, pi. (for the masculine), and 

 some, pi. (for the feminine), may be, however, considered aa 

 substitutions for the pi tin 1 of u-no and u-na in such a case. 

 Al-cu-ni and al-cu-ne are, strictly speaking, the plurals of the 

 pronouns ai-cu-no (masc.), and al-cu-na (fern.), somebody. 



Singular. 



Un a-mf-co, a friend. 

 If un a-mt-co, of a friend. 

 Ad n a-mt-co, to a friend. 

 Un o-mt'-co, a friend. 

 Da i'n a-?ni-co, from a friend. 



In un a-mi-co, in a friend. 

 Con n a-mi-co, with a friend. 



Per un a-mi-co, for a friend. 



U-na gal-li-na, a hen. 



D' u-na gal-U-na, of a hen. 



Ad u-na gal-li-na, to a hen. 



U-na gal-li-na, a hen. 



Da u-na gal-li-na, from a hen. 



In u-na gal-li-na, in a hen. 



Co?i u-na. gal-lt'-nu, with a hen. 



Per u-na gal-li-na, for a hen. 



PluroJ. 



.4Z-cu-ni a-mi-ci, some friends. 

 D' al-cu-ni a-mt'-ci, of some friends. 

 -cu-iii a-mt'-ci, to some friends. 

 Al-ct\-ni a-mi-ei, some friends. 

 Da al-cu-ni a-mi-ci, from some 



friends. 



, In al-cu-ni a-mi-ci, in some friends. 

 Con al-cu-ni a-mt'-ci, with some 

 friends. 



al-cu-ni a-mt'-ci, for some 

 friends. 



Si/ijular, 



j Un' d-ca, a goose. 



; D' un' 6-ca, of a goose. 



1 Ad un' 6-ca, to a goose. 



I'n' tj-ca, a goose. 



Da un' 6-ca, from a goose. 

 | In un' d-ca, in a goooe. 



C'oit un' 6-ca, with a goose. 

 ! Per ui' 6-ca, for a goose. 



Plural. 



Al-cti-ne 6-chc,* some geese. 



D' al-ai-nc 6-che, of some geese. 



Ad al-cu-ne u-che, to some geese. 



jil-cii-ne d-du-, some geese. 



Da al-cu-ne 6-che, from some geese. 



In al-n't-iM 6-che, in some geese. 

 Con al-cu-ne 6-che, with some geese. 



Per al-cii-m; o-c?t, for some geese. 



Plural. 



Titt-ti i p6-po-li, all nations. 

 Di titt-ti t pd-po-li, of all nations. 

 .4 tut-ti i po-po-li, to all nations. 

 Tiit-ti i pd-po-li, all nations. 

 Da t itt-f i i po-po-li, from all nations. 



In tut-fi i p6-po-l\, in all nations. 



Con tut-ti i pd-po-li, with all 



nations. 

 Per tiit-ti i ptf-po-li, for all nations. 



Al-t\i-nc gal-li-ne, some hens. 



D' al-cu-jve gal-U-ne, of some liens. 



Ad al-cii-na gal-li-ne, to some hens. 



vtl-cti-ne gal-lt'-ne, some hons. 



Da ai-cii-ne <jal-li-ne, from some 



hens. 



In al-cu-n jal-li-)ie, in some hens. 

 Con al-cii->i gal-li-n, with some 



hens. 

 Per al-cu-ne gal-li-n, for some 



hens. 



Singular. 



Tut-to il pd-po-lo, all the nation. 

 Di tut-to il p6-po-lo, of all the nation. 

 A tut-to il pu-po-lo, to all the nation. 

 Tiit-to il p6-po-lo, all the nation. 

 Da ttit-to il p6-po-lo, from all the 



nation. 

 In tut-to & jK-])o-k>, in all the 



nation. 

 Con tut-to il i>o-i>o-lo, with all the 



naiion. 

 Per tut-to il p<J-po-lo, for all the 



nation. 



The words tut-to (masc.), tut-ta (fern.), all, entire, whole, and 

 am-be-due, both, havo this peculiarity, that tho article i# 

 placed after them whenever they come before a noun; as, 

 tut-to il )im-do, all the world; am-be-due \ fra-Ul-U, both 

 the brothers. Am-bc-di'te is used for the masculine aa well 

 as for the feminine, and it is obvious, from its signification, 



* The auxiliary letter, n, lias been interposed between c and , to 

 preserve in the plural 6-ch (6-kai) the sound of c in the singular rf-r 

 (6-kalO. Without the h, the plural of 6-ca would be -i5c, pronounced 

 6-tchoi. This will be more fully explained hereafter. 



