LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY. 



143 



Common Snglith of Gtmwn of Lov,r Gvrmt* Ootkie of 

 Jfnglwh. M'a-l./(1380). LutJwr. Sa*m (1451). (720 A.D.). UZpfcifcw (360) 

 Us to us nns uns uus uns. 



- " heuU, hyto hiutu 



D.iy day 



cure unser unse unseer unsarana. 



taglich degelika umozhic 



ln.il brot brod broatb hlalf. 



oud uud undo jah. 



ve forgeve yergib forgif oblaz oflet. 



Us to us mis uas uns uns. 



Our ouro unser unse unseero tliatoi. 



dettia schuld schulda sculdl skulano sijaimo. 



As M wie alf'i so swaawo job. 



we wir wy wir weis. 



ForgiYe forgiven vergeben forgeven oblozen ofietun. 



to our uuBoru uusen uns unsaroim. 



,rs dottouris schuldigern scbuldenera ikuldlkcm skulam. 



Lead lede fuhre enleyde firlotti briggais. 



Ug us uns uns unsih uns. 



Not not ni.-lit nicbt ni ni. 



Into into in in in in. 



Temptation temptacioun versuchung bekoringe khorunka f raistubnjoi. 



But but sondern sondor uzz ak. 



Deliver clolyver erlose lose crlosi lausei. 



Us us uns uns unsih uns. 



From from von van fona af. 



Evil j vel dem ubel obelo ubile ubilin. 



This table is fall of instruction. Go through it carefully 

 word for word, making due allowance for diversity of spelling. 

 For instance, our word come re-appeara in come to, comme, to 

 comme, chiveme, and quimai. In tho " bist" of the Lower 

 Saxon, wo recognise an old mood common in the south of Eng- 

 land in our boyish days, whore and when tho present tense of 

 the verb to be was thus conjugated, I be, thou bist, he bees, we 

 le, you be, they be. The Gothic of Ulphilas offers the most 

 striking points of comparison. We will go through it, and point 

 out the words which still form a part of the English tongue : 

 . our; thu, who; in, in; himinam, heaven; weihnai, 

 vowed ; thc-in, thy ; namo, name ; quimai, come ; wilga, will ; 

 ana, on ; airthai, earth ; gif, give ; uns, our ; daga, day ; un- 

 sarana, our ; hlaif, loaf; briggais, bring; lausei, loose; af, of; 

 ubilin, evil. It is thus seen that our mother tongue had a sub- 

 stantive existence as early as tho year of our Lord 360. And it 

 is curious to observe that in this, the oldest form of the Teutonic 

 languages, we find in several instances the nearest approach to 

 our modern words and forms. For example, himinam, heaven ; 

 thein, thy, thine; airthai, earth; gif, give; uns, us; daga, day ; 

 hlaif, loaf, tho ancient word for bread ; briggais, bring ; lausei, 

 loose. 



LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY. XXVIII. 



ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

 THE characteristics of Organio Chemistry will be best shown by 

 considering the three definitions by which the subject has been 

 described. 



1. It is the Chemistry of bodies which are the products, direct 

 or indirect, of vital organisms. 



In the vast laboratory of Nature, under the active super 

 intendence of that mysterious power called " life," innumerable 

 changes are continually being carried on, by which a large num- 

 ber of the different bodies organic substances are produced. 

 The immediate cause of these changes is no more caprice, but 

 certain forms of life, animal or vegetable organisms, have each 

 peculiar powers, to extract from certain substances that food 

 which is necessary for their own existence, and in this process a 

 new arrangement of the elements of the body takes place, thus 

 giving rise to new substances. 



But Organio Chemistry does not confine its attention to those 

 substances which are found in actual existence in tho world ol 

 organisms, but it also includes within its range the consideration 

 of those bodies which may be found in dealing with the products 

 of vital organism. For example, alcohol is never found in 

 nature, but is produced by the process of fermentation, in which 

 a re-arrangement of elements takes place, and one of the pro- 

 ducts is alcohol. Hence its consideration is included in this 

 branch of Chemistry. 



But thia definition has still further to be extended to tak 

 in those bodies which can be built up fmm their elements 



that is, bodies which have organic analogies, bat which are made 

 >y syntheMU. For instance, oxalic aci-1, which is purely a vege- 

 table product, being the acid which imparts the sour taste to 

 sorrel, lichens, and other plants, can be produced by heating 

 curio cyanide, and allowing the cyanogen to paat into water. 

 Here it is dissolved, and the two compounds react on each 

 other, each being decomposed. One of the product* is ammonium 

 xalate, 2(NH 4 )O,C t O,. 



Upon the addition of a mineral acid, oxalic a. 

 iberated. 



Or perhaps a more remarkable example is the manner in which 

 Berthelot built up alcohol from its elements. He canted 

 current of galvanic electricity to pass between charcoal point* io 

 an atmosphere of hydrogen. By this means the carbon of the 

 joints was made to combine with the hydrogen, forming 

 acetylene (C^H,). By submitting this acetylene to the action of 

 nascent hydrogen when it was in combination with copper, two 

 atoms more of hydrogen were introduced into the compound, 

 and ethylene (C,H 4 ) was produced. With sulphuric acid C,H,SO 4 

 s formed ; and when this is diluted and distilled, alcohol U 

 iberated. 



Every year adds to the list of organic bodies which can be 

 milt up by inorganic processes ; yet the distinction between 

 ;he two divisions of Chemistry is not thereby impaired. 



2. Organic Chemistry is the Chemistry oj the carbon compounds. 

 Of the vast number of bodies which are considered under this 



subject, so widely different in their properties, one and all con- 

 ain carbon. In most of them hydrogen and oxygen are 

 lombined with tho carbon. Some also contain nitrogen, and a 

 lew contain other elements. 



No subject can better reveal the wisdom of the Mind which 

 made all these things. It is wonderful indeed that, by ringing 

 the changes on some four simple bodies, three gases and a 

 solid, such an endless variety of different substances, all exhibit- 

 ing different properties, can be produced. 



Since all organic bodies contain carbon, they are all com- 

 bustible all are destroyed by high temperatures. This fact is 

 used as the basis of organic analysis. 



3. Organic Chemistry is the " Chemistry of compound radicals." 

 This is Liebig's definition. In Inorganic Chemistry the com- 

 pounds are generally made up by the union of elements, and the 

 various changes which they undergo are produced by replacing 

 one element by another, according to their atomicities. If in 

 these changes elements only were concerned, then there would 

 be a clear line between the two branches of the subject, but 

 this is not always the case. Thus 



AgNO, + NaCl = AgCl + NaNO,. 

 Here the NO, acts as an element, being a molecule, or, in the 

 language of Organio Chemistry, a radical. The changes which 

 take place in organic bodies ara carried on by an interchange of 

 radicals, which play precisely the same part as the elements in 

 Inorganic Chemistry, having their peculiar atomicities, and the 

 replacement taking place accordingly. For example, ethyle 

 (C 3 H S ) is monatomic. If the hydrogen of the water type, 



f O, be replaced by this radical, we have ,-,'* > O, which a 

 ** i H ") * ' 



ether. If only one H be replaced, ~ H JO is the result 



alcohol. 



Here is the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol : 



forming snlpho-vinic acid and water. 



The constitution of all known organic bodies may be referred 

 to one of three leading types 



H ) ' H f and 



The H in these types is replaced by the radical according to 

 its atomicity. For instance, glycerile (C,H,), the radical of 

 glycerine, is tri-atomic. To construct the formula of the 

 latter body, it is necessary to replace one H in the water type, 



but there must be three atoms of H ; thus, { O s . Now in- 



f 1 H ) * 



sert the radical. O s is the formula of glycerine. 



3 / 



If the student prosecute this subject he will find that th 

 radicals arrange themselves into groups, the members of which 

 vary from each other by a fixed increment ; so that formula 



