THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



and succeeded by one or more, in compound words, the s is to 

 ba connected with the consonant which comes before it; as, 

 Cons-tdn-za, cons-tre-nir, ins-pi-rdr. 



In Spanish there are as many syllables in a word as there are 

 vowels or diphthongs ; as, quin-ce, nor-te, pa-rien-te. 



In English, the word quince forms only one syllable; in 

 Spanish it is pronounced Tceen'-thay. Every letter in Spanish is 

 pronounced except the h, and the u in the syllables gue, gui, and 

 que, qui. There are no silent vowels or consonants, as in the 

 English words thumb, throne, psalm. 



ACCENT. 



In Spanish the voice never rests itself on any other letter of 

 a syllable than a vowel. In the case of diphthongs and triph- 

 thongs, when in accented syllables, the accent is generally 

 placed on that vowel which we have marked in the list of 

 diphthongs and triphthongs. Thus tie-ne, having the accent on 

 the first syllable, has the stress of the voice on the e of the 

 diphthong, though the accent is not written over the voweL 



In words ending in cion, the accent is on the o, and not on 

 the i of the diphthong, as marked in the list ; as, re-sur-rec- 

 cion. 



Words that end in a consonant are accented on the last 

 syllable, without any marked accent over it ; as, caliz, cup ; 

 capaz, able ; virtud, virtue. These are accented as if written 

 ca-Uz, vir-tud, etc. Exceptions : Mdrtes, Tuesday ; VMrnes, 

 Friday ; and proper names ending in ez, as Perez. 



Words that end in a vowel are accented on the syllable nexi 

 to the last, without any marked accent over it ; as, rastro, 

 track ; hoja, leaf ; buitre, vulture ; accented as if written rds- 

 tro, bui-tre, etc. 



Words that end in two vowels, whether their vowels form 

 a diphthong or two separate syllables, come under the above 

 rule ; as, odio, hatred ; opulencia, opulence ; idea, idea ; ac- 

 cented as if written 6-dio, o-pu-Un-cia, i-de'-a. 



Words that end in a consonant, and are accented on any other 

 syllable than the last, or that end in a vowel (or diphthong), 

 and are accented on any other than the syllable next to the 

 last, have the accent marked to show the exception from the 

 general rules ; as, cdrcel, prison ; cardcter, character ; accented 

 on the syllable marked. 



Words that end in two vowels, which are commonly known 

 as diphthongs, usually have the accent marked if it falls on 

 one of these vowels ; as fantasia, poesia, senorio, minud. 

 Words which end with y have the accent on the last syllable 

 without being marked. 



In compound words there are a few exceptions to the above 

 general rules. In adverbs of quality or manner, ending in 

 mente, some follow the general rule, and others retain the 

 accent on the first part of the word, on the same syllable on 

 which it would be if mente were not affixed ; as, su-cin-ta-mun-t e 

 succinctly ; li-be-ral-me'n-te, liberally. 



The plurals of words retain the accent on the same syllable 

 (whether marked or not) as in the singular ; as, jardin, jar dines, 

 caliz, calices. There are two exceptions, cardcter and regimen , 

 their plurals being accented caracteres and regimenes. 



The above rules are applicable to all parts of speech except 

 the persons of verbs ; these are accented according to the 

 following rules : 



The persons of verbs are accented on the syllable next to the 

 last, without being marked ; as, hablo, I speak ; beben, thej 

 drink ; liiciera, he would make. Infinitives, having no person 

 are not included in this rule, but are always accented on the 

 last syllable. 



In the case of the persons of verbs, whenever the accent doe 

 not fall on the syllable next to the last, it is marked ; as, estd 

 he is ; hablare, I shall speak ; hablardn, they will speak ; ami 

 I loved. The only exception to this rule is the second person 

 plural of the imperative mood, and words ending in ay or oy 

 which are always accented on the last syllable, without th 

 accent in general being marked ; as, hablad, speak ye ; haced 

 make ye ; estoy, I am. Some writers, however, place the accen- 

 over the last syllable, as habldd, hacea. 



The accent is by many writers marked on certain monosyl 

 lables, to distinguish them from others of similar orthography 

 and pronunciation, but of different meaning ; as, el, the, and &1 

 he ; se, himself, and se, I know, and s&, be thou ; si, if, and si 

 to himself. The letters d, to ; e, and ; 6, or ; u, or, are als< 



enerally used with a marked accent, though some writers 

 omit it. 



Throughout these lessons, every word which does not come 

 under the three general rules of accentuation, will have the 

 accent marked over the vowel upon which the stress of voice is 

 ;o be laid. 



The learner will now be able to pronounce the names of the 

 Spanish letters of the alphabet, giving to each letter its true 

 Spanish sound, according to the preceding directions : a, be, 

 ce, clw, de, e, efe, ge, ache, i, joia, lea, ele, elle, erne, ene, ene, 

 o, pe, cu, erre, ese, te, u, ve, equis, igriega, zeta. 



PUNCTUATION. 



The comma, semicolon, colon, period, etc., are the same, and 

 are employed in the same manner, as those in English. The 

 marks of interrogation and exclamation are placed in Spanish 

 both before and after interrogative and ejaculatory phrases or 

 sentences ; as, ^ Este canapd no es mievo ? Is not this sofa 

 new ? ; Que cegueaaa ! ; Pobre Espana ! What blindness \ 

 Poor Spain ! 



The diaeresis " is used over the u in the syllables gue, gut, 

 que and qui, when the u is to be sounded, as aguero ; and also 

 over the last of two vowels which usually form a diphthong, 

 to indicate that they are to be divided into two syllables ; 

 as, hero'icidad, pronounced ai-ro-ee-thee-ddth. 



The tilde " is used over the n when this letter has the sound 

 of ni in onion ; as, dano. 



The acute accent ' is placed over vowels, not to alter their 

 sound, but to indicate the syllable on which the stress of voice 

 is laid in pronouncing certain words ; as, 6rden. 



The circumflex accent * was formerly used over a vowel 

 following x, when this letter had not its guttural sound ; as, 

 sexo; and over a vowel following ch, when the latter was pro- 

 nounced as fe ; as, chilo. But the alterations in orthography no 

 longer require this mark. 



HYDROSTATICS. III. 



PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS ARISING FROM THEIR WEIGHT. 



HAVING now mastered the principle of the equal transmission of 

 pressure in all directions, we must pass on to notice the pressure 

 which is produced by the weight of the liquid itself. Water, in 

 common with all other substances, possesses weight, and this 

 weight must cause pressure on the sides of the vessel containing 

 [t. If we have an upright cylindrical vessel with straight sides, 

 and place in it a cylinder just fitting, it will press on the bottom of 

 the vessel with a force equal to its own weight. If now we re- 

 place the solid by a liquid having the same weight, the pressure 

 on the bottom of the vessel will remain the same as before, but, 

 in addition to this, every part of the sides of the vessel will 

 sustain an outward pressure. This is clear from the fact 

 that, if we remove the side, or any portion of it, the liquid 

 will no longer retain its shape, but will spread 

 itself out as widely as possible. 



The first fact we have to notice about this 

 pressure is that it increases with the depth of 

 the liquid, and in the same proportion, but is 

 perfectly independent of the shape of the . 



vessel containing it. In the proof of this 

 and other propositions, we shall make the following assump- 

 tion that any portion of a bulk of fluid may be supposed 

 to become solid without making any difference in the state 

 of equilibrium of the liquid, or in the forces which act upon 

 it. A moment's thought makes this fact self-evident. Let 

 A B c D (Fig. 4) represent a vessel filled with water to the 

 level A B. Take in it any horizontal layer, E F, and in this 

 let a portion, G H, having an area of 1 square inch, be 

 supposed to become solid. It is now kept at rest by two equal 

 and opposite forces the weight of the water above it, and the 

 Upward pressure of that below it. Now the former is clearly 

 equal to the weight of a column of water having, like G H, an 

 area of 1 square inch, and whose height is equal to G K. If 

 G H be now sunk to a lower level, it will have to sustain the 

 weight of a longer column, and therefore the pressure of the 

 water on it will be greater. We see thus, that the pressure 

 increases with the depth. If we take a number of bags of flour 

 or sugar, and pile them one on the top of the other, the lower 



