58 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



likely the draughtsman will deviate a little from the exact 

 position in joining these points, three by three, by the arcs of 

 circles, these arcs of circles or curves, with the straight lines 

 A iv., F iv., B iv., H iv., c iv. (Fig. 8) will form portions of a 

 circular crown, very inexact to the truth, which will correspond 

 to the sixteen squares into which the larger square, A o (Fig. 8), 

 is divided, so that the mixtilineal bow a corresponds with the 

 square a, the bow b to the square b, c to c, d to d, etc. 



A figure, such as a portrait, is now carefully drawn on 

 the square A C (Fig. 8) : for instance, that part of the portrait 

 delineated in the little square a is copied into the arc or curved 

 space, a (Fig. 8), and elongated or contracted according to 

 the taste of the draughtsman, and so on with all the other 

 portions of the square, A c (Fig. 8), which are transferred 

 according to the lettering namely, the little square marked b 

 to the arc b, c to c, d to d, and so on with all the little sixteen 

 squares which are gradually drawn in and transposed to the 

 curved spaces or arcs similarly lettered. As may be imagined, 

 an extremely irregular drawing is produced, and it is so perfectly 

 disguised, that the outline of the portrait cannot be discovered. 

 If, however, the distorted drawing is viewed in the cylindrical 

 mirror by the eye placed at o (Fig. 8), and better still when 

 the eye is raised perpendicularly on the point o (Fig. 8), at a 

 height equal to o N (Fig. 9), the distorted picture will then 

 appear in the mirror transformed to the original portrait. To 

 make the change more perfectly, it is advisable to fix a piece of 

 flat wood or brass at the point O (Fig. 8), and look through a 

 small aperture in the same perforated at a height from o (Fig. 

 8) equal to o N (Fig. 9). In perusing the above description, 

 the reader must remember that two diagrams are referred to 

 namely, Figs. 8 and 9. 



The above method of bringing a distorted drawing to its 

 proper proportions when reflected in a cylindrical mirror is 

 equally curious and ingenious, and the effect produced will 

 amply repay the labour incurred by any of our readers who 

 may be painstaking enough to construct one for himself on the 

 plan that has been given in sufficient detail for his guidance. 



LESSONS IN ITALIAN. XXI. 



THE PREPOSITIONS SOPRA, SOVRA, SU. 

 THESE prepositions generally denote the relation of two things 

 or persons, one of which is on a higher locality than the other, 

 or one of which surpasses the other with regard to some 

 quality. 



86-pra and so-vra commonly govern the accusative case, 

 sometimes, however, the genitive and dative. Su, for the 

 greatest part, has the accusative after it. For example : 



S6-pra un cdr-ro e-gli se-de-a, he was sitting on a cart. 



S6-pra la td-vo-la s6-pra la ter-ra, on the table, on the earth or 

 ground. 



For la md-no s6-pm il pit-to, to lay the hand on one's breast. 



J?s-se-re s6-pra un u-fi-cio, to fill (i.e., to be appointed over or at the 

 head of) an office or official situation. 



Mon-tdr s6-pra u-na bdr-ca, to get into (i.e., to mount on) a boat. 



Sul-la ct-nia di u-na er-ta mon-td-gna, on the top of a steep mountain. 



JB'-gli d-bi-ta sul sii-o po-de'-re, he lives on his estate. 



Sit guel ttt-to vo-ld-va un co-l6m-bo, a pigeon flew on that roof. 



In su is frequently used in the place of su. For example .- 



Sul Ut-io, or in sul ttt-to, on the roof. 



Uri cdr-ro in su du-e ro-te, a cart on two wheels. 



So-pra as well as sit frequently denote nearness, and are 

 used for vi-ci-no, ap-prds-so, near, close, hard by, on, etc. For 

 example : 



iT-na cit-td si-tud-ta s6-pra un fiu-me, sul RS-no, sid-la ma-ri-na, a 

 town situated on a river, on the Rhine, on the sea-coast. 



l?s-ser p6-sto s6-pra il md-re, to lie on the sea, 



Pas-sdm-mo il Re-no s6-pra Co-16-nia, we crossed the Rhine near 

 Cologne. 



They also frequently coincide with the use of the English 

 prepositions towards, about, at, etc., with regard to time. 

 For example : 



So-pra se-ra, towards evening. 



Sul or in sul mez-zo di, sul ve'-spro, sul tra-mon-tdr del s<5-le, towards, 

 about noon, or twelve o'clock, towards evening, at sunset. 



Besides these uses so-pra has other important meanings, as, 

 in addition to. For example : 



oo-pra la feb-brc mi e ve-nu-ta la po-dd-gra, in addition to the fever I 

 have got the gout. 



Against. For example : 



An-dd-re s6-pra i ne-mi-ci, to go against the enemy. 

 To. For example : 



La not-te del ve-ner-dl sdn-to s6-pra il sdb-bat-to, the night from Good 

 Friday to Saturday. 



On. For example : 



Pre-sta-re so-pra p6-gni, to lend on securities. 

 Of. For example : 



Pen-sd-re, di-re, par-ld-re, dis-cdr-re-re s6-pra qudl-che c6-sa, to think, 



speak, talk, discourse of something. 

 Into. For example : 



Qu^-sta cd-sa ri-gudr-da sd-pra la pidz-za, this house looks out into 

 the square. 



From. For example : 



Pr&i-de-re li-na cit-td, so-pra il ne-mi-co, to take a town from the 

 enemy. 



More than, above, beyond. For example : 



If a-md-va so-pra la ui-ta sii-a, he loved him more than his own life. 



86-pra se means erect, straight, upright. For example : 



Star sd-pra se,* re-cdr-si so-pra se, to stand erect. 



An-ddr s6-pra se, to walk erect. 



Euphony sometimes requires the addition of the letter r to 

 the particle su, especially before a word commencing with a, 



In sur u-na pidz-za, on a square. 



Sur i mdn-ti, on the hills. 



Sur i Id-ghi, on the lakes. 



THE PREPOSITIONS FRA, TRA, INFRA, INTRA. 



These prepositions generally correspond to the English Bra- 

 positions between, betwixt, and among. For example : 

 Tra il mii-ro ed il fiu-me, between the wall and the river. 

 Fra ti-m6-re e spe-rdn-za, between fear and hope. 

 Nd-cque u-na li-te in-tra le du-e dcm-ne, there arose a quarrel between 

 the two women. 



They also very frequently signify within, in the course of, in ; 

 as: 



Tra pd-chi gidr-ni, in a few days. 



Ha pro-mes-so di ri-tor-nd-re fra tre gidr-nt, he promised to return 



within three days. 

 In-fra un dn-no ttit-ti mo-ri-ro-no, all of them died in the course of 



one year. 



Before the personal pronouns me, se, etc., fra and tra have a 

 peculiar meaning corresponding to the English prepositions to, 

 with, and are used, as it were, in the places of ddn-tro me, den- 

 tro se, within me, within himself. For example : 

 Fra se me-de'-si-mo dis-se, he said to himself. 

 I'-o di-ce-va fra il mi-o cuor, per-che pa-ven-ti J I said to my heart, 



why dost thou tremble ? 



Tra me so-ven-te di-cen-do, frequently Baying to mysolf. 

 Pen-sd-re fra or tra se stes-so, to think with one's self. 

 In some phrases fra and tra merely signify in or at. For 

 example : 



Par-ldr tra 'I son-no, to talk in one's sleep. 



So-ven-te fra 'I sdn-no s' ol-zd-va, he frequently rose in his sleep. 



Tra piit tidl-te gli pa-go mil-le scu-dt, ho paid him a thousand crowns 



in several instalments. 

 Tra u-na vol-ta e V dl-tra, at different times. 



Tra (and sometimes also fra) is often used adverbially for 

 pdr-te, partly. For example : 



Tra per md-la con-ddt-fa e per im-pen-sd-te scia-gu-re ven-ne a fal-li-re, 



he became bankrupt partly through bad conduct, partly through 



unforeseen misfortunes. 

 Co-stan-ti-no re-gnd piu di trent" dn-ni, tra nell' im-p^-ro di R6-ma e 



quel-lo di Co-stan-ti-no-po-li, Constantino reigned more than 



thirty years, partly in the empire of Rome, partly in that of 



Constantinople. 



Fra sometimes means together. For example : 

 Fra ud-mi-ni e don-ne sd-no 10,000, men and women together 10,000. 



VOCABULARY. 



* Star s6-pra di se means, to stand absorbed in thought, or to be in 

 doubt, to waver, hesitate; fd-re or la-w-rd-re s6-pra di se means, to 

 work for one's self i.e., without being a member of a tradesmen's 

 company, etc. ; s6-pra di se generally means, at one'a own expense, 

 for one's self, etc. 



