98 



THE POPULAE EDUCATOR 



and make the Inscriptions legible. There are several lichens 

 besides the orchil and the cudbear which are used as dyes, and 

 others besides the Iceland moss which are eaten. The Tripe-de- 

 roche (Umbilicaria pustulata) is one of these. It is very beauti- 

 ful in appearance, out one would scarcely suppose it possible 

 that any nounsnment could be obtained from such a mere 

 scaly sort of crust as it forms. It is, however, a valuable 

 article of diet to the Canadian hunters ; and some English 

 travellers (Dr. Richardson and his company) were for a long time 

 sustained by this strange food alone, when wandering amidst 

 those northern snows in pursuit of scientific objects. 



On rocks by the sea we find many species of lichens, particu- 

 larly such as belong to the genera Lecidea, Endocarpon, Urceo- 

 laria, etc. ; but some of the beautiful genus Ramalina are also 

 found in such localities, and among them that very pretty one, 

 tho Ramalina scopulorum, or ivory lichen. 



We must now leave the consideration of this interesting but 

 almost unknown family ; but before we do so we would remind 

 cur readers, that there is no branch of knowledge which does 

 noi hold out some reward which he who studies it with care 

 cannot fail to attain ; and that the health and pleasure gained 

 by the brisk and varied walks to which the pursuit of mosses 

 and lichens invite their votaries, at a season when some incen- 

 tive to leave the fireside is especially needful, will well reward 

 them for a little effort in the pursuit of this branch. 



LESSONS IN SPANISH. IV. 



DEGREES OP COMPARISON (continued). 



MOST adjectives may have their superlatives formed by muy 

 prefixed, or by 'the ending isimo. There are a few, however, 

 Buch as those ending with ial and antepenults (i.e. those ac- 

 cented on the last syllable but two) ending with co, go, lo, which 

 form their superlative absolute always with muy ; as, social, 

 social; muy social (and not soeialisimo), very social. As a 

 general rule, adjectives of many syllables form their superlative 

 absolute by muy and not with isimo. The superlative of mucho, 

 much, is always muchisimo. 



The superlative relative is formed by placing the definite 

 article before mas (more) or menos (less), and putting these 

 before the adjective; as 



El Judio es el mas rico de todos, The Jew is the most rich (the richest) 



of all. 



Remark. Some of the adjectives have, besides the regular 

 superlative absolute, also an irregular one, derived from some 

 ancient form of the adjective ; as, fidelisimo, very faithful ; 

 bonisimo, very good. The regular superlative of these adjec- 

 tives is fieliBimo and buenisimo, from fiel, faithful, and bueno, 

 jood. 



VOCABULARY. 



Aleman, German. 

 Amable, amiable. 

 Alto, high, lofty. 

 Annonioso, harmonious 

 Bello, fine, elegant. 

 Benigno, benign. 

 Be"stia, beast. 

 Brilliante, brilliant. 

 ;, Culpable, culpable. 

 El medico hallo, the 

 doctor found. 



EXERCISE 7. SPANISH-ENGLISH. 



1. La muger es muy amable. 2. El juez es muy viejo. 3. El criado 

 es muy culpable. 4. La lengua 2 espaiiola 1 es bella y muy armoniosa. 

 6. La luna es muy brilliante. 6. Las estrellas son muy brilliantes. 7. 

 Las torres son altisimas. 8. Las Espaiioles sou muy soberbias. 9. 

 El juez es muy escrupuloso. 10. La casa es altisima. 11. El'buey es 

 tan fuerto como el caballo. 12. El pintor es mas robnsto que el 

 Jmpresor. 13. Las criadas de la Espaiiola son mas garrulas que los 

 criados del Aleman. 14. El sol es mas brilliante que la luna. 15. La 

 luna es me'nos brilliante que el sol. 16. La hija del medico es menos 

 Lermosa que la hija del juez. 17. Las casas no sou tan altas como las 

 torres. 



EXERCISE 8. ENGLISH-SPANISH. 



1. The mountain is very high. 2. The male-servant is very old. 3. 

 The Spanish 2 language 1 is elegant and very harmonious. 4. The sun 

 is most brilliant. 5. The stars are very brilliant. 6. The painter 

 is as proud as the judge. 7. The horse is as strong as the ox. 8. 



The carpenter is as rich as the printer. 9. The daughters of the 

 German woman are less culpable than the daughters o the 

 Spanish woman. 10. The stars are less brilliant than the moou. 

 11. The lion is stronger than the horse. 12. The judge is wiser than 

 the physician. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



The personal pronouns are yo, I ; tu, thou ; usted, you; el, 

 ella, ello, he, she, it; nosdtros (masc.), nosotras (fern.), u-e; 

 vosdtros (masc.),vosotras (fern.), ye; ustedes, you; ellos (maac.), 

 ellas (fern.), they ; se, himself. 



Nos is sometimes used in the nominative for nosotros ; as, we 

 (nos) the representatives of Mexico. 



Vos is used only in addressing the Deity or persons of very 

 superior rank. 



Usted is tho only word with which persona address and are 

 addressed in ordinary conversation in Spanish. It is a contrac- 

 tion of vuestra merced (your worship) ; and though it is always 

 to be translated by the second person (you) in English, it is, of 

 course, of the third person, and requires ita corresponding pos- 

 sessive pronoun and the verb to which it may be the nominative 

 to be in the third person. In writing, usted is nearly always 

 abbreviated into v., vm., vmd., vd., V., Vm., VM., Vtra., or Md. ; 

 and the plural (ustedes) into vs., vms., vmds., FF., Vms., Vmds. 



The personal pronouns have two forms of the objective case, 

 the direct and the indirect, the first governed by the verb or the- 

 preposition to (understood), and the second always governed by 

 a preposition before it (expressed) ; as 



1st. Juan me dio iin libro, John (to) me gave a, loo/:. 



2nd. Juan vino por mi, John came for me. 



The personal pronouns* are declined as follows : 



FIRST PERSON. 



Singular. Plural. 



THIKD PERSON IN ADDRESSING. 



Nom. Vmd., your u'orship, you. 

 1st Obj. Le, iyour u'orship, to you. 

 2nd Obj. A vmd., io your worship, 

 to you. 



Vmds., your worships, you. 

 Les, your worships, to you. 

 A vmds., to ijour worships } to 

 you,. 



THIRD PERSON REFLECTIVE. 



1st Obj. Se, himself, herself, itself; themselves. 



2nd Obj. A si, to himself, to herself, to itself ; to themselves, 

 A pronoun of the first objective case is placed before the- 

 verb which governs it, except with infinitives, imperatives, and 

 gerunds ; as 



El hombre me dijo, the mail sate! 

 to me. 



Los perros los siguieron, the dogs 



followed them. 



If the sentence begin with a verb, the pronoun is allowed to 

 come after it : in other words, a pronoun of the first objective 

 case may or may not beyin a sentence. When tho pronoun 

 comes after the verb, it is joined to it, and both form one word; 



Negoles el cielo este gozo, Denied-thena heaven this pleasure. 



The first objective case is employed in Spanish, when in Eng 

 lish either the verb or the preposition to, expressed or undor. 

 stood, governs the personal pronouns ; as 

 Pablo me mandd, Paul commanded Juan te dio un libro, John yava (to) 



me. thee a beofc. 



* We have here used only the preposition d before the indirect or 

 second objective, though any other preposition would require the same 

 case j as, de &., por ellos, para, mi. 





