164 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOE. 



road ? 15. What say you ? * (what says your worship ?) 16. What 

 does John wish? 17. What do the judges say? 18. What hat have 

 you ? 19. What do you wish ? 20. For whom did John write the 

 letters? 21. For the French woman. 22. To whom (plur.) did John 

 give the French* books 1 ? 23. To the daughters of the judge. 21. 

 What a woman ! 25. What a beautiful city ! 26. Who wishes sugar ? 

 27. Who speaks English ? 28. Who understands Spanish ? 29. Who 

 understands what Mary says? 30. What sort of spoons have my 

 friends ? 31. What do the women say ? 32. Do you take water? 33. 

 What did John's sister say? 31. Does your son speak Spanish, Sir? 

 35. Yes, Madam, my son speaks Spanish. 36. Whose spoons has the 

 female servant ? 37. Whose hat has Peter ? 38. Whose buttons have 

 the painters ?. 30. What hooks has Mary ? 40. What bread have 

 you ? 41. Who is thirsty ? (who has ihirst ? ) 42. Who is hungry ? 

 43. Are you (a) Spaniard ? 44. Are the Spanish women thirsty ? 45. 

 No, Madam, the Spanish women are not thirsty. 



KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN SPANISH. V. 

 EXERCISE 11. 



1. The judge spoke to his friends. 2. My mother is hungry. 3. 

 Her man-servant is thirsty. 4. Her daughter has three spoons. 5. 

 Our maid-servants are culpable. 6. The book is mine. 7. The spoon 

 is thine. 8. The hats are ours. 9. My father saw me. 10. The horses 

 are hers. 11. The spoons are theirs. 12. The houses are mine. 13. The 

 physician is a friend of mine and his. 14. He gave the book to a friend 

 of ours. 15. He raised his hands. 16. She raised her eyes. 17. The 

 man-servant has a hat in his hand. 18. My head aches. 19. My 

 throat is sore. 20. The painter took his hat and went to the physi- 

 cian's house. 21. My nephew raised his head. 22. You have your 

 money. 23. The woman has your book. 24. You wrote some letters 

 to your friends. 25. You gave three books to your female servants. 

 26. The physician gave you many books. 27. The houses are yours. 

 28. The horses are yours. 29. Your books are good. 30. You found 

 your money. 



EXERCISE 12. 



1. Mi amigo es rico. 2. Mi madre es pobre. 3. Mis amigos hal- 

 laron un tesoro en el camino. 4. Tu hermano vio un libro en la calle. 

 5. Un amigo mio hallo un sombrero. 6. El medico hablo a sus 

 amigos. 7. Mi hermano tiene hambre. 8. Su caballo es fuerte. 9. 

 Todos mis libros son tuyos. 10. Su criada tiene sed. 11. Yo voy a 

 su casa. 12. Nuestras criadas sou garrulas. 13. Las casas son mias. 

 14. Las cucharas son suyas de ella. 15. Los caballos son suyos de 

 L'llos. 16. Tu casa y la mia son hennosas. 17. Tu madre y la mia 

 tienen prudtJncia. 18. Tus hermanos y los mios son niuy pobres. 19. 

 Sus hermanas y las nuestras son soberbias. 20. Pedro es sobrino mio 

 y suyo de ella. 21. El pintor es amigo mio y suyo de 61. 22. Una 

 criada mia hallo un sombrero en la calle. 23. Ella levauto las mauos. 

 24. Pedro levanto la cabeza. 25. El criado tiene uu sombrero en la 

 cabeza. 26. El la tomo por la mano. 27. Ella le tomo por la mano. 

 28. La cabeza le duele. 29. Le duele la cabeza de Pedro. 30. Me 

 duele la garganta. 31. El medico le tomo el sombrero, y fuo a casa 

 del pintor. 32. La muger les tomo los sombreros. 33. Vmd. dio un 

 libro a su padre. 34. Vms. dieron dos cucharas de plata 4 sus criados. 

 35. Sus hijas de vmdes. sou muy hermosas. 36. Los bueyes sou suyos 

 fle VV. 37. El pintor le dio a vmd. tres sombreros. 38. Sus hijos 

 de vmdes. son soberbios. 39. Sus hermanas de vd. son amabih'simas. 

 40. Vmd. no tiene su dinero. 41. La muger no tiene su libro. 42. 

 Vm. no escribio cartas a sus amigos. 43. Tu padre es rico. 



LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY. XXXV. 



DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION DYES. 



THERE are many useful products derived by the process of 

 destructive distillation. The two kinds of distillation have 

 frequently been spoken of. In the ordinary distillation the 

 body which is distilled undergoes no alteration in the process, 

 but is merely separated from another body with which it is 

 mixed because it has a lower boiling point, and is therefore 

 driven from the mixture in vapour. But in destructive distilla- 

 tion a re-arrangement of atoms takes place, and the products 

 of the operation may be altered by regulating the temperature. 

 Vegetable matter being the most prolific source of compounds 

 thus procured, we shall notice the three cases in which the 

 process is applied. 



The distillation of wood is conducted in iron retorts ; the first 

 products come over when a temperature of 140 Cent, is reached. 

 The products are in each of the three states of matter solid, 

 liquid, and gaseous. The solid part of the wood remains behind 



* The learner can use vm., vmd., V., Vm.. Vd., or Vmd. in the singular 

 for you. 



in the retort as charcoal, and in the harder species of wood 

 forms 25 per cent. ; 53 per cent, is liquid, and the rest gases, 

 which are chiefly carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and hydrogen. 

 The liquid is a complicated mixture : about 4 per cent, is 

 acetic acid, 7 per cent, is wood-tar, and the remainder is 

 wood-spirit, methyl acetate, acetone, with a large quantity of 

 water. 



Wood-tar has a most complex composition. The most im- 

 portant of its hydrocarbons are toluol, xylol, and cymol ; and 

 of those of its constituents which contain oxygen, kreasota is 

 the best known. 



The tar most used in ship-building is procured by a rough 

 mode of distillation from the pines of Scandinavia. A conical 

 hole is dug in the side of a hill ; the point of the cone terminates 

 in a reservoir which receives the products ; the kiln is charged 

 with pine-logs, which are ignited at the top, and then the mouth 

 is covered with sods. The mass burns downwards, and the 

 heat from the ignition gradually distils the wood immediately 

 below it. The reservoir receives the tar, mixed with acetic 

 acid, turpentine, and resin. If this be distilled again, turpen- 

 tine comes over, and pitch remains in the retort. 



Among the constituents of the tar is one which has lately 

 gained much prominence paraffine; it is not only procured 

 from the distillation of the harder kinds of wood, but from all 

 vegetable matter, especially peat, and forms an important 

 component of petroleum the "rock oil" which has of late 

 years been discovered in America and other countries. It would 

 be difficult to estimate the effect which the supply of a cheap 

 light-giving liquid has had in improving those classes who are 

 employed during the continuance of the daylight in out-door 

 occupations. At night, the flickering feeble light of a candle 

 offered no inducement to reading ; the labourer, therefore, 

 either wasted his evenings in gossip, or went to bed. Now, the 

 paraffine-lamp gives a brilliant light, at a little cost, and the 

 increased intelligence of districts not as yet lit with gas may 

 be chiefly ascribed to its agency. 



Pure paraffine is a solid substance, much resembling sperma- 

 ceti. It burns with a bright, smokeless flame, and is soluble 

 in turpentine, benzole, etc., in which state it exists in the liquids 

 which bear its name. It derives its name from parum (little), 

 affinis (affinity), since neither alkalies nor strong acids have any 

 effect upon it. To separate paraffine from wood-tar, half its 

 weight of oil of vitriol is added, and the temperature kept up to 

 the boiling point of water. Upon allowing the liquid to stand, 

 the paraffine rises to the surface as a clear liquid ; when decanted 

 and cooled, it solidifies. 



Paraffine-oil is one of the results of the distillation of Bog- 

 head cannel coal. A liquid which also bears this name is 

 obtained from peat, and is used for lubricating machinery. 

 The large quantity of ash and bulky charcoal which remains 

 behind in the retort after the destructive distillation of peat 

 renders the distillation of peat by the ordinary method imprac- 

 ticable. It is pursued in some parts of Ireland, much after 

 the fashion which has been described for the production of 

 Stockholm tar, in which process the heat which causes the 

 distillation is developed by the combustion of the peat itself. 

 A large supply of paraffine is thus procured, of which candles 

 are manufactured. 



Kreasote (CgH^Oj). The separation of this compound from 

 the wood-tar is very complicated, and for this reason much of 

 the kreasote of commerce is only kreasote in name, being in 

 reality phenic or carbolic acid. It is the most powerful anti- 

 septic substance known, and it is to its presence in wood-smoke 

 that meat may be " cured " if hung over such a fire. " Smoked 

 meat " may be artificially prepared by dipping it in a solution 

 of water containing only one per cent, of kreasote. On exposure 

 to the air it gradually becomes hard, and dries without putre- 

 fying. 



Ttie Distillation of Coal. This process is carried on to an 

 enormous extent for the sake of the gaseous products, which 

 are now so universally used in illumination. London alone 

 requires more than a million tons of coal annually to supply it 

 with gas. 



The coal is distilled in semi-circular cylindrical retorts of 

 various lengths, several of which are heated in the same fire. 

 The quality of the gas is mainly regulated by the temperature 

 at which the retort is kept. If below a bright cherry-red, the 

 gas carries with it after its purification sundry hydrocarbons, 



