LESSONS IN LOGIC. 



180 





"City of London," "this stone." A common term, on the 



other hand, in ono which U capable of being truly affirmed, in 



me sense of an indefinite number of thing* i.e., of all 



. In. -h belong to the clan for which the term stands .?., 



war," " city," "stone." 



Into concrete and abttiract. When a term stand* for a 

 ilni.LT it is called concrete; when for an attribute of a thin?, 

 abstract. Thus "wine," "black," "man," are of the former 

 cloHH ; and " wisdom," " blackness," " humanity," of the latter. 



(3.) Into positive, negative, and privative. A term is posi- 

 tive which denotes the presence of a certain attribute e.g., 

 noe," "man," "seeing;" and one which denotes the 

 absence of an attribute is called either negative or privative, 

 according as the tiling is considered as one which might be 

 expected to possess the particular attribute or not. Thus 

 "impatient," " not-man," are negative terms; bnt "blind" is 

 prr. .it.ivo, because, in addition to denoting the absence of the 

 ;it tnlmte " sight," it also implies that that is an attribute which 

 the human being or animal to which the term may be applied 

 illicit be expected to have had. 



(4.) Into absolute and relative. A term is absolute which 

 denotes an object considered by itself, without being viewed in 

 relation to other objects. " Man," for instance, does not imply 

 in its signification the existence of any other object than the one 

 for which it stands. Hence it is called absolute. A relative 

 term, on the other baud, denotes an object viewed in relation to 

 some other object, which, in its turn, is viewed in relation to 

 the first, and has a name given to it from the relation between 

 the two. Thus, "father" and "son," "ruler" and "subject," 

 "longer" and "shorter," are relatives; and each term in the 

 different pairs is called the correlative of the other. 



(5.) Into con-notative and non-connotative. These words 

 (which are derived from the Latin) moan " marking along with," 

 and " not marking along with," respectively. The first name is 

 applied to terms which, besides denoting an object, serve also to 

 mark or imply some attribute of that object. Terms to which 

 the latter name is given denote the object in the same manner 

 as the former ; but do not, like them, imply in their signification 

 any attribute of the objects for which they stand. Thus, 

 "white," "virtuous," "capital of England," "Emperor of 

 France," are all connotative terms, as in addition to serving to 

 mark and stand for the particular things or people to which 

 they are applied, they also con-note at the same time the attri- 

 butes of "whiteness," "virtue," "being the capital of Eng- 

 land," "being the Emperor of France," which belong to them. 

 "Whiteness," "virtue," "London," "Napoleon," are, on the 

 contrary, of the class of non-connotatives, as each denoting an 

 object only, without serving also to mark any particular attri- 

 bute thereof. It will appear, from what has been already said 

 upon abstract and concrete terms, that all concrete common 

 terms must belong to the former class, and all abstract 

 common terms to the latter. 



(6.) Into univocal and equivocal. Strictly speaking, these are 

 not two kinds of terms, but two modes of employing them. A 

 term is applied univocally with respect to all objects to which 

 it can be applied in the same sense. It is applied equivocally 

 with respect to all objects to which it can be applied in different 

 senses e.g., " stone " is applied nnivocally when it is used of 

 granite, limestone, sandstone, etc., but equivocally when it is ap- 

 plied to some one of these, and to a certain measure of weight. 



By way of recapitulation in a tabular form, we may say, then, 

 that terms may be classed as follows : 



TERMS. 



(1) 



Singular. 

 Common. 



~T~ ~T~ ^t 



(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 



Concrete. Positive. Absolute. Con-notetit>. Univocal. 



Abstract. Negative. Relative. Non-connota- Equivocal. 



Privative. tivt. 



There are several other divisions both of terms and of the 

 method of employing them which it is unnecessary to enumerate 

 here. Those given above are the principal, and will be sufficient 

 to enable the reader to understand the remarks which follow. 



We have next to consider propositions. A Proposition is, as 

 has been already said, a "judgment expressed in words," or we 

 may describe it as a sentence which pronounces that one of two 

 objects or ideas agrees or disagrees with the other i.e., as a 

 sentence which affirms or denies. Let us take a very simple 



Hare,ta 



the langoafe of logicians, "man" u termed UM nkjt 

 animal," the predicate t and "is," the eopvU. The SoMoet ia 

 In every instano* that which U sp< ' 



something in pronooneed to agree or disagree, that of which 

 something u affirmed or denied. The name of Predicate ( word 

 derived from the Latin, and moaning " to irfirf) is given to 

 that which U .aid of the subject, that whiob is ptosnmaeed to 

 agree or disagree with it, that which is affirmed or denied of It. 

 The Copula U the term which indicate* the act of jmAfmmt. 

 which pronounce* whether the subject and predicate agree with 

 one another or not This most always be "U" or "is not ;" 

 and if the predicate and oopola an eombined together into on* 

 word, u in the proportion " the fire borne." it may be reaolved 

 into the copula and participle .?., " the fire U burninff." The 

 substantive verb "to be" when thai employed a* a oopola, it 

 may be remarked, does not neoeaaarily include the idea of real 

 existence .<;., "the centaur i* a fictitious animal," hi wUeh 

 sentence the copula joins together two terms, each of which 

 stands for a non-existent object. 



Propositions are divided into several nlssssa. 

 most obvious division being into affirmative and negati 

 affirmative proposition is one in which the predicate i* i 

 of the subject, and a negative one in which the predicate is 

 denied of the subject. Thus, " lead is heavy " is affirmative ; 

 "stones are not light," negative. This is called a drrissflsi 

 according to quality. 



We may also divide propositions into categorical and hypttki 

 tical. The former of thete simply assert that the predicate does 

 or does not agree with the subject e.g., " man is mortal," " the 

 Bible is not of human origin." The Utter (to borrow the words 

 of Archbishop Whately) make their assertion under a condition 

 e.g., " if the world is not the work of chance, it most have had 

 an intelligent maker;" or with an alternative e.g., 

 mankind are capable of rising into civilisation 

 the first beginning of civilisation must hare 

 above." The name of conditional is given to such a pro- 

 position as the first of these two last examples, and that of dis- 

 junctive to the second. There is also a further classifioatkni of 

 categorical propositions. Some of them are called pure, snob 

 as those given above, which make the assertion of agreement 

 or disagreement simply ; while others, which have some adverb 

 or qualifying word attached to the predicate, denoting the 

 manner in which the subject and predicate agree or disagree, 

 are called modal. 



Propositions must also be either true or fals* ; bnt this is a 

 matter which, to speak accurately, falls not within the province 

 of Logic, but within that of the particular subject-matter about 

 which the proposition makes some assertion. If it were to be 

 considered otherwise, the logician, as such, would be required to 

 possess an accurate and intimate acquaintance with every 

 branch of human knowledge. 



Besides this, Propositions are also divided into Universal, 

 Particular, Indefinite, and Singular. A universal proposition is 

 one in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of the whole of 

 the subject i.e., of all the things denoted by it ; and a particu- 

 lar, one in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of only a 

 part. " All men are mortal " is an example of the one ; " some 

 men are vicious," of the other. Where, however, it is left unde- 

 termined by the mere form of the sentence, whether H is the 

 whole or only a part of the subject which is spoken of , as " man 

 is mortal," the proposition is termed indefinite. A *itioIr 

 proposition is one in which the subject if the name of an indivi- 

 dual, or a proper name e.g., "Garibaldi is a patriot." The 

 division of propositions into universal and particular is one 

 according to quantity, as it is termed ; bat before passing from 

 it there is one other observation which most be made. 



The classification of Propositions given above may be shown 

 in a tabular form thus : 



PROPOSITIONS. 



I 



(1) 



Affirmative. 

 Ktgativt. 



Tnu. 



Mba 



A term is said to be diitrOmted when H U taken in its whole 



