214 



THE POPULAE EDUCATOE. 



must be kept well charged. The second prepared and somewhat 

 darker tone may be repeated twice or three times across the 

 paper ; then take up the third, and as many more deeper tones 

 as may be necessary. A graduated tint that is to become 

 lighter must be commenced with the darkest, and followed with 

 the lighter tints upon the same principle we have explained 

 above, ending with water only. It is very difficult to wash a 

 uniform tone with opaque colours; if after using them the 

 result should be uneven, the only remedy is to stipple ; that is, 

 all the fainter and irregular parts must be filled up by short 

 separate touches with the point of the brush, using a tint 

 lighter than the ground ; if the stippling tint is darker than the 

 ground, the surface will soon be covered with spots. In this 

 process there must be no lack of patience; the uniformity of the 

 tone must be produced gradually ; to attempt to hurry it with 

 too dark a tint will entirely defeat the desired end. The brush 

 must not be too wet or too dry ; a medium will prevent blots on 

 the one hand, and a coarse roughness on the other ; nor must 

 the stippling be repeated whilst the paper is wet. With these 

 precautions a very necessary and useful kind of manipulation 

 will be acquired, when needful, in cases of flesh tints, draperies, 

 and sometimes in skies, etc. If some portions of the first wash 

 should prove to be darker than are required, stipple them 

 over with a brush containing water only, and gently rub the 

 moistened part with a piece of rag, wash leather, or blotting 

 paper; this will reduce the heavier portions, but it must be done 

 carefully and gradually by repetition, the same as in adding 

 colour by stippling ; in both cases all parts must be perfectly dry 

 before working them over again ; the india-rubber must not be 

 used for removing spots, as it would be too severe and bring off 

 more colour than needed. A gradual process must also be 

 employed in the use of Indian ink, as it is apt to stain the 

 paper if the first washes are too dark. For making graduated 

 shades let the first half-dozen washes be exceedingly light, and 

 immediately (as Indian ink dries very quickly) pass a clean wet 

 brush, not overcharged, along the edge to be softened ; we 

 repeat the edge only, because should the water brush be carried 

 too far into the tint the uniformity and smoothness of the 

 the shade will be destroyed; after several repetitions, the 

 tone of the ink may be slightly increased and the shadows 

 strengthened. Those of our pupils who have to use this mats- 

 rial for architectural and mechanical drawings will soon dis- 

 cover that by patient repetition with a moderato depth of colour 

 their work will be both brilliant and effective. 



LESSONS IN LATIN. XLVIII. 



PAETS OP A SENTENCE. 



BEFORE I pass on to illustrate the heads into which Syntax 

 is divided, I will, for the sake of thorough elucidation, add a 

 few words respecting the constituent parts of a sentence. 



A sentence is a thought expressed, a statement made, a 

 Proposition laid down, as 



Rosa floret, 



The rose flourishes. 



The essential or constituent parts of a sentence are 



1. The subject, or that of which something is said or declared ; as in 

 the foregoing sentence, Eosa, the rose. 



2. The predicate, or that which is said or declared of the subject, as 

 /toret ; of the rose it is affirmed that it flourishes. 



3. The attribute, which, forming a part of the predicate, describes the 

 quality or thing which is affirmed of the predicate. Floret, it flourishes 

 or ./lowers, may be resolved into est florifera, the rose is flower-bearing ; 

 where flower-bearing is the attribute, so called because it describes that 

 which is attributed to the subject. 



4. The copula, or a part of the verb esse which joins the predicate 

 with the subject, as, Eosa EST florifera, tlie rose is flowering. 



5. The object, which, forming part of the predicate, denotes the person 

 or thing on which the action of the verb falls, as, Eosa fert FLORES, 

 the rose bears FLOWEBS ; where flores is the object, and is in the accusa- 

 tive case, because it receives the action indicated in the verb fert. 



The subject is a substantive, as rosa, a rose ; or another word 

 used as or for a substantive ; as a pronoun, as, ILLE floret, 

 HE flourishes; or an adjective used substantively, as, MULTI 

 florent, MANY (that is, many persons) flourish. 



The predicate is a verb, as, rosa floret ; or an adjective with 

 a part of the verb esse, to be, as, rosa PULCHRA EST, the rose is 

 BEAUTIFUL ; or, again, simply a part of the verb esse, to be, 



employed as denoting existence, as, rosa EST, the rose is, that 

 is, the rose exists. 



In Latin, the predicate and the subject may be expressed by 

 one word; as, amo, Hove; amabunt, they will love. The reason 

 of this is, that the endings of the verbs denote the person, and 

 thereby supply the place of pronouns. 



A subject may consist of more than one word: (1) it may con- 

 sist of an adjective and a noun, as, ROSA PULCHRA floret, THE 

 BEAUTIFUL ROSE flourishes, or is in flower ; (2) it may consist of 

 a noun in the genitive case, governed by a noun in the nomina- 

 tive case, as, HORTUS REGIS floret, THE GARDEN OF THE KING 

 flourishes ; or (3) again it may consist of one noun explaining 

 another noun, as, ALEXANDER, REX MACEDONUM, magnua 

 appellatur, ALEXANDER, THE KING OF THE MACEDONIANS, is 

 called Great. The first example is an instancQ of what we have 

 above termed agreement ; so also is the third example ; this, 

 moreover, is an instance of what is called apposition, a word 

 which will be shortly explained. The second example is an 

 instance of what has previously been described as government. 



The predicate may take different forms ; as (1), virtutem 

 amo, J love virtue ; here, the predicate consists of a verb with 

 an object, that is, a noun in the objective or accusative case ; (2) 

 the predicate may consist of a verb with a noun and a prepo- 

 sition, or a prepositional clause, as, pro patria pugnamus, we 

 fight for (on behalf of) our country ; (3) the predicate may be 

 formed by two verbs, as, scribere cupio, I desire to write, where 

 scribere is the object ; and (4) the predicate may be found in an 

 adverb joined to a verb, as, bene scribis, thou writest well. Of 

 these examples, the first three are instances of government; 

 the fourth is an instance of qualification. 



The subject is found in the nominative case ; as, ALEXANDER 

 vicit Darium, ALEXANDER conquered Darius. It may also 

 appear in the accusative case, as, fertur ALEXANDRUM vicisse 

 Darium, it is said that ALEXANDER conquered Darius. But we 

 have here an instance of difference of idiom ; for in English wo 

 employ the nominative with the conjunction that, in order to 

 express what in Latin is expressed by the accusative case with 

 the infinitive mood, generally called the accusative before the 

 infinitive. Observe, however, that in the Latin the accusative 

 Alexandrum is the subject to the verb vicisse. In the last 

 example there are three instances of government; that is (1) 

 Alexandrum is required to be in the accusative case by the verb 

 fertur ; (2) by the same verb fertur, the verb vicisse is required 

 to be in the infinitive mood ; and (3) Darium is governed in the 

 accusative case by the infinitive vicisse. 



I may present the chief parts which enter into the construc- 

 tion of a sentence thus : 



( Subject. Predicate. 



\ Eosa floret. 



Subject. Predicate. 



copula attribute 



est florifera. 



Predicate. 



Eosa 

 /Subject. 



(Eosa 



verb 

 fert 



object 

 flores. 



To the several parts may be added qualifying words, as 



1. To the Subject. Pulchra rosa fert flores. 



2. To the Object. Eosa fert pulchros flores. 



3. To t?ie Verb. Eosa in iiere fert flores. 



This is a simple sentence, inasmuch as it has one subject and 

 one predicate. Two or more simple sentences make a compound 

 sentence; as 



Eosa floret et bene olet. 



The rose flourishes and smells well. 



This sentence is equivalent to two sentences, namely, rosa 

 floret, the rose flourishes ; and rosa bene olet, the rose smells 

 well. 



Compound sentences are of various kinds. That which has 

 been just given may be called conjunctive, since it is made 

 compound by the conjunction et, and. Another kind of com- 

 pound sentence is the relative, so called because it is formed by 

 the introduction of a relative clause, that is, one which begins 

 with the relative pronoun qui, quaa, quod, who or which ; as 

 Eosa, Qfite FLORET, olet bene. 

 The rose, WHICH FLOURISHES, smells well. 



