282 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



line of a darker colour around the edges of objects, thinking 

 they are adding to the effect by muking everything more 

 distinct : the fact is, the effect is destroyed by dark lines ; they 

 make the picture flat ; and as these dark edges re never seen 

 in Nature, we are not justified in using them. We have yet a 

 few observations to make upon Fig. 2. There are not many 

 cast shadows, and it must be remembered that, as a general 

 rule, cast shadows are darker than broad shadows. The reason 

 that the cast shadow on the tiles, caused by the intervention of 

 the higher portion of the building, is darker than the broad 

 shadow on the side of the building, is that the reflected light 

 from the roof lowers the tone of the broad shadow without 

 making any difference to the cast shadow as it falls upon the 

 same plane, that is, the roof. By a proper attention to 

 semi-tones in lights, and to reflections in shadows, we do more 

 to give relief and effect to the picture than by any other means. 

 Colours, however forcible their contrasts may be, will only 

 produce a map-like flatness, without the indispensable addition 

 of semi-tones and reflections. Therefore, we advise our pupils 

 to continue the use of sepia only for some time, until they have 

 acquired a sufficient power of execution and an insight into 

 some of the mysteries that lie between the two extremes of 

 light and shade. 



LESSONS IN LATIN. XLIX. 



S YNT AX AGUE EMENT. 



IN regard to the sentence mors omnium rerum est extremum 

 (death is the end of all things), which occurs in the Latin-English 

 Exercise given in the last lesson, a remark may be desirable. 

 Here mors, the subject, is in the feminine gender, and extremum, 

 the attribute, in the neuter. The rule, therefore, scorns to bo 

 broken. But the fact is, that in this and similar cases the 

 neuter adjective denoting a being or thing of a certain class 

 may be looked upon as a substantive, and is to be construed 

 as snch. This construction, it may also be noticed, is very 

 frequent in Greek. Other examples are given here : 



Turpe senex miles, turpe seuilis amor. Ovid. 



Varium et mutabile semper (est) ferniua. Virgil. 



In such a phrase as the following, Excisa ferro est Pergamum 

 (Perganium has been cut down by the sword), where excisa 

 is feminine to agree with urbs (city), though Pergamum is of 

 the neuter gender, the explanation is found in the fact that the 

 construction follows the sense of the passage rather than the 

 grammatical form. Explain thus, Eunuchus bis die acta est 

 that is, fabula or comedia, Eunuchus being the name of one 

 of the favourite Eoman comedies. 



In the sentence Athence fuerunt urbs (Athens was a city), 

 Atliens is in the Latin of the plural number, and urbs of the 

 singular. Here, again, the sense is regarded more than the 

 sound ; for A thence, though plural in form, is singular in mean- 

 ing. The sense must always have predominance. In this 

 sentence 



Amantium irse amoris integratio est ; 



Lovers' quarrels are the restoration of love ; 



where the plural subject irce is identified with the singular 

 attribute integratio, the sense causes a departure from the strict 

 grammatical rule ; and an attempt to put the grammar right 

 might issue in a change of the sense : for instance, for irce 

 read irn, a lovers' quarrel is the restoration of love, one quarrel 

 might not have the alleged effect ; besides, what was general 

 has now become particular. In these two sentences 



1. Athense fuerunt urbs ; 



2. Amantium iree amoris integratio est ; 



we find the subjects and the predicates of different numbers. 

 The general rule in such cases is, that the verb should agree with 

 the subject; accordingly, in the first sentence, fuerunt is con- 

 nected with Athence ; but in the second sentence the subject 

 irce is plural, whereas the verb est is singular. This is a case of 

 attraction ; est is made singular by the proximity of the singular 

 noun integratio. 



2. A noun agrees with a pronoun, as 



1. Trucidate eum, patrise proditorem. 

 Slaj lihn, the betrayer of his 



country. 



2. Vos, Qv.irites, veseramini Jovem. 

 You, Quintet, venerate Jupiter. 



3. JUTeus /rater est diligens. 

 Jlfy broiler is industrious. 



4. Quoe ego consul dixi vera sunt. 

 The things are true which I said 



wlien I was consul. 



In the first sentence the pronoun eum agrees with the noun to 

 which it refers in gender, number, and case, both being in the 

 masculine gender, the singular number, and the accusative case, 

 In the second sentence the noun Quiritcs agrees with the pro- 

 noun vos in number and person, both being in the secoud person 

 plural ; they do not agree in case, for vos is in the nommativcj 

 while Quirites is in the vocative case. In the third sentence the 

 possessive pronoun meus, like other adjectives, agrees with its 

 noun frater in gender, number, and case, both being in the mas- 

 culine gender, singular number, and nominative case. In the 

 fourth sentence the noun consul agrees with the pronoun ego in 

 gender, number, and case, both being in the masculine gender, 

 singular number, and nominative case. From these instances 

 comes forth the rule that 



A noun agrees with a pronoun in gender, number, and case, or 

 gender and number. 



The pronoun may be implied, as 



Hostis hostem occidere volui. 



(I) an enemy wished to kill an enemy. 



Hostis is in the first person singular, in concord with the pronoun 

 ego implied in volui, a verb of the first person singular, perfect 

 tense. 



The pronoun ille is used to mark out a person or thing 

 emphatically, and generally in a good sense ; iste, employed also 

 for emphasis, conveys reproach, as 



Magno ILLI Alexandro est sirnillimus. 



He is very like THE CELEBRATED Alexander the Great. 



Non erit ISTA amicitia sed mercatura. 



THAT would not be friendship but traffic. 



Observe that in the last example ista agrees with amicitia, 

 though in a similar case the pronoun in English is in the neuter 

 gender. The general fact may be stated thus, that in Latin 

 pronouns referring to something gone before agree with the noun 

 to which they are prefixed ; what has gone before may be a sen- 

 tence, or a statement, or a fact, or even a noun, as 



Pompeio, QUOD popnli Eomani lumen fuit, extincto. 



Pompey, WHO was tha LIGHT of the Roman people, being dead. 



We may invert our proposition ; for, as a noun may agree 

 with a pronoun, so may a pronoun agree with a noun, as 



1. Use est nobilis ad Trasimenum PCGNA. 

 THIS is (7ie famous BATTLE near Trasimenum. 



2. Qui CANTUS dulcior inveniri potest ? 

 WHAT sweeter SONG can be found ? 



3. QUOD CARMEN est aptius ? 

 WHAT VERSE is more suitable '? 



4. VIRGO, quwpatria est TUA? 



VIRGIN, -ujfiat is THY country ? 



5. COLONIAM QUAM Fregellas appellant. 

 The COLONY WHICH they call Freijcllae. 



6. LIBRI QUOS ad to misi optivni suut. 



The BOOKS WHICH I liave sent to thee are very good. 



7. Est inihi FILIUS QUEM valde amo. 



1 have a SON WHOM I greatly love. 



8. Optima est FILIA tua, mater, EAM diligas. 

 Thy DAUGHTER is excellent, mother, love her. 



By studying these examples, particularly the first, second, third, 

 and fourth, you will see that in general 



A pronoun agrees with its noun in gender^ number, and case. 

 A relative pronoun and a demonstrative pronoun may agree 

 with its noun only in gender and in number, as appears from the 

 sixth, seventh, and eighth. There are cases in which the rela- 

 tive agrees with its noun or pronoun in person only, as 



Ille EGO, QUI quondam, gracili modulatus avena. 



I, that well-known poet, WHO, etc. 



Nunc horrentia Martis arma CANO. 



Now sing of the frightful arms of Mars. 



The general rule may be given thus : The relative pronoun 

 agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. The ante- 

 cedent is the word, noun, or pronoun which goes before, and to 

 which in sense the relative refers. In the fifth sentence above, 

 coloniam is the antecedent to quam ; and in the sixth libri is the 

 antecedent to quos. A proposition may be the antecedent, as 



Ego cum Pompeio in sermonibus versatus sum ; quoe nee possuni 

 scribi nee scribenda sunt. 



I have discoursed with Pompey ; which things (that is, the things which 

 were then spoken) can neither be written nor must be written. 



When the reference is made to a fact, the neuter quod is used 

 commonly, having id before it, as 



