LESSONS IN LOGIC. 



(Mtfcfcenf 3l>iun gffaUt. 8. 3d; merfe e ib.m on, ta ft ni 

 heit gefagt bat. 9. e$en ie fid; nad; Dftrem '.Hater urn Y 10. 

 id) fe(K i"t> i"4> mnncn greunken urn. 11. .U> Icbt mir tieie 

 2d;uler. 12. ialle iin. 111*1, .Rinteben 13. 'JJiein 'J'ruur fd;ie|jt mini 

 iuxjel auf ad;tjia. irtinit voiu '^,111111 



an !'<: (Vol. III., page 277). 



1. Tim m-ri. lrnt ho* happened, and it cannot bo altered. 2. When 

 li.l I,.- niivt with this accident? 3. It happened an boor ego. 4. 

 ID be done ahall be dose, to procure a better situation for tbeee 

 5. It hit* frequently been the COM that confidence has been 

 abused, (i. In former times more wonders and signs took place than 

 in the present time. 7. It served him right to have onoe received a 

 i-hustiMinuut. 8. Without the knowledge and will of Ood nothing 

 comes to pass. 9. The idler does not know what to do. 10. The dili- 

 gent boy did not know what eUo to do. 11. The gaoler asked what be 

 mu.t do to bo saved. 12. How do you like the vegetables ? 13. I 

 like them very much. 14. Do you not like this cake? 15. Oh, yes ; 

 1 lik,- it very much. 16. Do you like the dinner ? 17. Mo, doctor ; 

 .ing tastes bitter. 18. It is I who speak and have spoken this. 

 .s he who ventured to apeak these words. 20. It is you, is it 

 ho lmro said that they should liberate the prisoners ? 21. Tes, 

 mill it in you who have opposed me. 22. These words have deeply mor- 

 tified our yoiiiiL,- frieud. 23. She seems to have been mortified. 24. 

 One should not feel oneself hurt about trifles. 25. One should not 

 long harbour the thought of having been offended. 26. Have you 

 already touted thin fruit '( 'a. Yes, I have just now tasted it. 



EXKBCISE 167 (Vol. III., page 277). 



1. SBann ifl Sbrem greunbe baft llnglucf begegnet V 2. <S gefd;ab. 

 ; cr ocip nid;t, ie er baffelbe uberwinken foil. 3. 2Bir moHen 

 '.Mtleft MTfucfcrit frine teUung, JH wrbcffern. 4. Sffienn tit llmflante titfer 

 Unite 511 intern maren, fo Wurte 9lfle mit kenfctben gut geb.en. 5. 8ft tft 

 icK'n eft tc-r 8aU getoefen, taji feint titc mipbraud;t rocrben ifl. 6. !Eit 

 Strafe, irclcfje tiefe faulen Xnaben empfinijfn, gefebab, ib,nen red)t. 7. 

 (Wtf^f^f waft ka roid, id; toerke auf ott wrtrauen. 8. 2Ba gefrb.eb.en ift, 

 ift nid;t ju flnkern, unfc maft gefagt roorben ift, fann nid;t ungefagt gemacbt 

 rocrttn. 9. d;merft 3bnen 3$r (Sffen 10. JRein, J&err Doctor, tnir 

 ntmerft niebtft ; Me fd;mccft mir bitter. 11. <5 mar mein greunb, ker 

 riefe 2Borte fprad), man mod;te biefen armtn Wuflroankerern beifteb,en. 12. 

 JBa* fiat 3finen 3b,r neucr 2Bagen gefoftct V 13. Cr b,at mir funfjig 

 (Wuineen gefofttt. 14. -fcaben ie fd;on kiefen JTnd;cn wrfuetyt ? 15. 3a, 

 abcr ft fdjmwft mir nid;t ; &.aben k antcrn ? 



EXKECISE 168 (Vol. in., page 277). 



1. He gave him a blow in the face. 2. My sister playfully gave me 

 a blow with tho palm of her hand. 3. It does not become boys to 

 strike one another. 4. Father is gone on a pedestrian tour, and will 

 not return before evening. 5. My brother was in the field this morn- 

 iug in order to look at the corn, and this afternoon he is going into 

 town to see his oick cousin. 6. How did you come by this gold piece ? 

 7. I found it as I was going to the field. 8. It is not known how this 

 man came by hi riches. 9. Bich people live in town in winter, and 

 in the country in summer. 10. When rich and proud citizens come 

 iuto the country, they are fond of ridiculing the homely and simple 

 manners of its inhabitants. 11. Louie XVI. was captured just on the 

 frontiers of France, through the treachery of a postmaster. 12. The 

 thief wa taken by the night-watch, as he was going to run out of the 

 house. 13. It was not known for a long time who the strangers were, 

 until it was discovered that they were political refugees. 14. At last, 

 what had been covered by the veil of secrecy for many years has come 

 to light. 15. Before he got in the carriage with me, he made it a 

 condition that I should drive slowly. 16. When he was asked why ho 

 had committed this degrading deed, he replied that distress had driven 

 him to it. 17. Hereupon I answered him, that want was no reason 

 tor theft, and distress was no reason for crime. 18. Fortune trans- 

 ferred him from affluence to the greatest poverty, as it often trans- 

 ferred me from one position to the other, from one country to the 

 other, and from one part of the globe to the other ; but the severest 

 blow it gave me was, that it allowed icy brother to die on the day of 

 my arrival in America. 



EXEBCISE 169 (Vol. III., page 278). 



1. QJlcin JBruter ge&t SWorgen fru$ mit fcinem greunte uber Sank, unfc 

 rcirfc am 2lbenb jurucffommen. 2. SOie fameu Sie ju kiefetn S3ud;e ? 

 3. 3cb fank e, al id) uber Sanb gina.. 4. !Dtr S>ater wrfe&te bent JJnaben 

 cinen @d;(aj mit ber anb. 5. 2luf bit gragen, tt>eld;e ker JHid;ter an ten 

 'Berbtec&et t^at, crfefcte er, bag er ba >l>erbred;en nid;t scrftlfclid; begangen 

 babe 6. 3d; bin fett (anger 3cit m*t in Deutfcblanb gcnxfen. 7 3d; bin 

 nicfjt (ange in 3)eutfeblanb genjefen. 8. <J ifl lange fyer, bap id; meint 

 Item unb SBruber gefefyen babe. 9. 8ange nacftbem fid; fein JBIeiftift 

 qcfunken I;attc. ttugte er nicbt, luer e< genommen I>atte. 10. aji un uber 

 ndt geficn, ba mir beute fd;cne6 JlBcttcr baben. 11. SBie (ange ifl eft bcr, 

 kafi 3ic cttta* von 3brtn greunken gefiort baben? 12. 3d; nxip eft nicfct, 

 uber nt glaube, eft ift langer al ein 'J'tonat, [cittern id; etroaft oon ilnicn 



LESSONS IN LOGIC. IV. 



1 1 V I'OTUETICAL 8 YLLOCiIHM-OBITB8-IN DUCTIOM . 

 HITHERTO wo hare trmted only of U>e pure Categorical HylJo- 



ffism, which oonsisU of three eatefforioal 



by Homo logician* propoaitioiu <to i*tue, from thair tmmiiug 



that the predicate is (or u not) contained in the subject. 



We have seen, howerer, thai than an al*o Hypotiietieal 

 Propontioiu, oompoaed of several (i.e., two or more) categorieaLi 

 united to one another by a conjunction, called a copula, and 

 named Conditional, LHnjunctive, Causal, etc, according to the 

 name* given by grammarians to the respective conjnnotkHW 

 which unite them. 



Now a Hypothetical Syllogum i* one in which one, two, or 



all three of the propositions are hypothetical* : e.g., (1) " If this 



man in wise, ho u happy ; be in wise ; therefore, he u happy." 



i who in wine, in happy ; if he is a philosopher, be M 



iierefore, if be is a philofiopher, he is happy." (3) " If 



he is wise, he is happy ; if be is a philosopher, he is wise ; 



therefore, if he ia a philosopher, he is happy." Of these raeh' 



syllogisms as in the first example are far more common than 



those resembling the other two. 



Hypothetical syllogisms are divided into Conditionali and 

 Disjunctives, the other kinds of hypothetical propositions not 

 giving rise to particular classes of syllogisms bearing their 

 names. 



A conditional proposition is said to have in it an illative force 

 i.e., one of the two categorical propositions of which it is com- 

 posed results or follows from the other. The name of antecedent 

 is given to that from which the other results ; and that which 

 results from it is called the consequent ; the connection subsist- 

 ing' between the two being termed the consequence. It should 

 be remarked that it is entirely upon this consequence that the 

 truth or falsehood of the conditional depends, and not at all upon- 

 the truth or falsehood of either the antecedent or consequent, or 

 both of them. Either or both of these may be false or absurd.. 

 and yet the conditional be true, i.e., the consequent may/oUotr 

 from the antecedent notwithstanding. For example, in this 

 proposition, " If the atheists are right, there is no God," both- 

 the antecedent and consequent are false, and yet the conditional 

 proposition composed of the two together is true, i.e., the truth* 

 of the consequent follows from the truth of the antecedent. 



The meaning of every conditional proposition, then, is that 

 the antecedent being granted the consequent is granted also. 

 This may obviously be considered from a twofold point of 

 view-. 1. If the antecedent is granted, the consequent must 

 be granted. 2. If the antecedent were granted, the consequent 

 would have to be granted. Henoe are derived these two 

 rules : Firstly, the antecedent being granted, the consequent 

 maybe inferred (which does not require explanation). Secondly, 

 the consequent being denied, the antecedent may be denied ; 

 because, if the antecedent could not be denied, i.e., if it 

 were true, the consequent (which is granted to be false) would 

 be true also. These rules may be made clearer by an example. 

 "If a state is well governed, the rights of the weaker are 

 secured." Here, if we grant the truth of the antecedent, the 

 truth of the consequent may, by the first rule, be inferred, and 

 we may reason thus : " But this state is well governed, there- 

 fore the rights of the weaker are secured." These three propo- 

 sitions taken together give us a Conditional Syllogism. Every- 

 conditional syllogism of this kind, in which, by the application 

 of the first rule, we, as it were, build up an argument, is- 

 called constructive, and is reducible to tho form " If A is B, C 

 is I) ; but A is B, therefore C is D." 



If, however, we apply to the same example the second of the 

 above rules, wo get what is called a Destructive Conditional 

 Syllogism. Thus, " If a state is well governed, the rights of 

 the weaker are secured ; but the rights of the weaker are not 

 secured in this state ; therefore it is not well governed." "If 

 A is B, C is D ; but C is not D ; therefore A is not B." 



It must be carefully borne in mind that we cannot in either 

 case reverse the process. We cannot infer anything at all, if 

 we deny the antecedent, or affirm (i.e., grant the truth of) the 

 consequent. It is readily conceivable (to recur to the above 

 example) that a state might be very badly governed in other 

 respects where the rights of the weaker were secure, and cons*. 

 qnently it does not necessarily follow from the fact that the 

 rights of the weaker in a state are secure that it is well 



