60 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



1. Adverbs of Time Present. Now, to-day, now-a-days, yet, instantly, 

 immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith. 



It is curious that presently, though from present, has ceased 

 to refer to the present, and now refers to time shortly to come. 



2. Adverbs of Time Past, Already, just now, lately, recently, yester- 

 day, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, 

 long ago. 



3. Adverbs of Time to Come. To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, 

 henceforward, by-and-by, soon, ere long, shortly. 



4. Adverbs of Time Relative. When, then, first, before, just now, 

 after, while, meanwhile, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, 

 afterward. 



5. Adverbs of Time Absolute. Always, ever, aye, never, eternally, for 

 ever, evermore, endlessly, everlastingly. 



6. Adverbs of Time Repeated. Oft, often, again, occasionally, fre- 

 quently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 

 annually, once, twice, thrice, three times. 



Adverbs of manner may be placed in these categories ; 

 namely : 



1. Manner from Quality. Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly. 



2. Affirmation or Negation. Yea, nay, yes, no, not, nowise, nohow, 

 verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, 

 forsooth (that is, for truth, equal to "indeed!" used ironically), 

 amen. 



3. Doubt or Uncertainty. Haply (by hap, that is, by chance), perhaps, 

 possibly, perchance, peradventure, maybe. 



4. Manner generally taken. Thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, any- 

 how, however, howsoever, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, 

 asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, extempore (offhand, without 

 the aid of a manuscript), headlong, lengthways. 



There are many adverbial plirases, such as not at all, in no 

 way, by no means, in fine, etc. These may be considered as 

 forming adverbial compounds. Indeed, compound adverbs might 

 be termed adverbial phrases. The following may also be con- 

 veniently ranked among adverbial phrases : not a rush ("I care 

 not a rush"), not a groat, post (he travels post). 



Adverbs are occasionally employed with the force of nouns ; 

 for example : 



" Shall I tell you why ? Aye, sir, and wherefore, for they say every 

 TcTiy hath a wherefore." Shakespeare. 



Adverbs are found where adjectives would be used, if adjec- 

 tives of the requisite kind existed. Thus we say " the present 

 bishop of London," also a former bishop and a future bishop; 

 but we have no adjective to characterise a bishop as being a 

 bishop at a particular point of time past, and so we say "the 

 then bishop ; " the licence may be considerable, but it prevents 

 an awkward circumlocution : for example : 



" The then bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty." 

 Clarendon. 



Adverbs are sometimes superseded by adjectives ; thus wo say, 

 speak low, look sweet, drink deep, run quick, rise early, go to 

 bed late, cut short, look clean, deal hard, scarce seven. In some 

 instances, however, the adjective retains its own power, and 

 expresses a meaning different from that which would ensue from 

 the corresponding adverb. Thus : 



Adjective. She looks sweet. 

 Adverb. She looks sweetly. 



These two forms vary in meaning ; the first signifies that she is 

 not only sweet, but looks so ; the second means that whether 

 she is sweet or not, she throws out a sweet look. 



HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. VII. 



CIRCULATION. 



HAVING in the last paper traced the products of digestion into 

 the general circulation of the body, we have now to consider, 

 under the present heading, the ultimate purpose those products 

 serve in building up and renewing the various parts of that 

 structure. To do this, we must try and understand what is 

 meant by the term circulation ; and, on examining this function, 

 we find that there are three parts necessary for us to consider ; 

 first, the circulating fluid (the blood) ; secondly, the circulatory 

 apparatus (the heart and blood-vessels) ; and, lastly, the act 

 itself. Taking them in this order, we must first examine into 

 the nature and composition of the blood. We are told, on the 

 highest authority, that the blood is the life, and the important 

 duties it fulfils in the animal economy almost entitle it to that 

 appellation, for it is the medium by which all the nutriment is 



supplied to the body, and from it are built up all the various 

 and different parts of which that body is composed. From the 

 blood is made alike the solid bone and the liquid milk, the 

 hard, horny structure of the nail, and the soft, yielding flesh and 

 fat; without its presence the heart would cease to beat, the 

 ey9 to see, the ear to hear, or the brain to think and will. Very 

 slight alteration in one of its many constituents is sufficient 

 at once to disturb the balance of health, or even to destroy 

 life itself. Whenever blood can be examined flowing in the 

 vessels of a living animal, as in the web of a frog's foot, tha 

 tails of some fish, or the wing of a bat, which are all sufficiently 

 transparent to allow the process to be observed, it appears to 

 be a colourless fluid, in which are floating a quantity of two 

 kinds of cells, or corpuscles, some of which are white, but a 

 much larger number red. When, however, the blood is drawn 

 from the body it presents a very different appearance; if 

 coming from an artery, it is a thickish fluid, of a bright scarlet 

 colour ; when from a vein, the colour is purple or nearly black. 

 As compared with water, the blood is considerably heavier, 

 its ordinary specific gravity water being taken as 1000 is 

 1055, but in disease it may rise as high as 1120, or sink as 

 low as 1026. The ordinary temperature of the blood in health 

 is about 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and this is pretty uniform 

 throughout the body, though it is said that the blood in the left 

 side of the heart is one or two degrees higher than that in the 

 right. The influence of disease is very strongly manifested in 

 its power to diminish or increase the normal temperature of the 

 blood; thus in some fevers it rises to 104 or even 108, and in 

 some exhausting diseases falls to 86, or even lower. The blood 

 is always alkaline in its reaction, and when exposed to the air 

 gives off a watery vapour, which is said to have an odour 

 strongly resembling the smell of the breath or skin of the 

 animal, so that it is possible by it to distinguish from what 

 particular animal it is derived. The milky smell of the cow, 

 and the strong smell of the cat, are very well denned. 



As to the quantity of blood contained in the body, consider- 

 able disagreement still exists, the most generally receive 1 

 opinion being that it forms about one-fourteenth of the weight 

 of the whole body. 



It has been said that the blood in the living vessels appears 

 to be a clear fluid holding in suspension a number of two kinds 

 of cells. The liquid is known by the name of the liquor san- 

 guinis, and the cells are called respectively the white and red 

 corpuscles of the blood ; but when blood is exposed to the 

 action of the air, certain changes take place which constitute a 

 rough analysis of it, and reveal the presence of another and 

 most important constituent. About ten minutes after blood 

 has been drawn from the body, if left at rest, it changes into a 

 kind of semi-solid or jelly. This is due to a substance contained 

 in the liquor sanguinis, which continues fluid so long as the blood 

 is in contact with the living tissues, but spontaneously coagulates 

 when removed from their influence ; this substance is called 

 fibrine, and is a modification of albumen, the chemical composi- 

 tion of each being almost identical ; some time after this jelly 

 or clot has been formed, if left exposed to the air and at rest, 

 it contracts and squeezes out a clear yellowish fluid, in which it 

 eventually floats. The fluid is the serum of the blood; the clot 

 is formed of the two kinds of corpuscles, entangled by the 

 coagulating fibrine. What this process of coagulation signifies 

 has been much debated, and directly opposite opinions have 

 been held by eminent physiologists ; for whilst on the one hand 

 it was considered to be a process of life an upward step 

 towards a higher organisation on the other, it was believed to 

 be a sign of death of the structure, the effect of its removal 

 from the living tissues. The grounds upon which the first 

 opinion was based were mainly that in the clot formed by the 

 coagulating fibrine distinct traces of structure were apparent, 

 very much resembling those seen in the process of reparation 

 which takes place in the living body when a wounded part is 

 healing ; whilst in albumen coagulated by heat or chemical 

 agency, no evidence of such change is ever observed. The latter 

 opinion is the one most generally held, as it is universally found 

 that in any case where vital energy is deficient, the blood has a 

 greater tendency to coagulate ; thus, when blood-letting was 

 extensively used in medical practice, it was noticed that the 

 blood last drawn coagulated in a less time than that which was 

 obtained by the first bleeding. The red corpuscles of the 

 human blood are by some considered to be circular flattened 



