114 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR 



and tetrahedron (a four-sided figure of which we shall presently 

 speak), which are arrived at by placing pyramids of a varying 

 number of sides upon the faces of the primary forms. These 

 are the six-faced octahedron or eight-faced cube, and the six-faced 

 tetrahedron. In Fig. 13 the general contour of the cube will be 

 recognised, having on each face a pyramid with eight sides ; or, 

 looking at it as an octahedron, the pyramids on the faces have 

 six sides. The six-faced tetrahedron is similarly constructed 

 by placing six-sided pyramids on the faces of the tetrahedron. 



Homohedral or Holohedral forms are perfectly symmetrical 

 Solids. Hemihedral forms are derived from the homohedral by 

 producing the alternate faces. Take, for example, the octahe- 

 dron (Fig. 8) ; aa', bb' are alternate faces ; if these all be produced 

 every way until they cut each other, a tetrahedron (Fig. 14) would 

 be the result ; the sides are correspondingly lettered. This same 

 figure may be made from a cube of chalk or potato by slicing 

 away the alternate corners until two of the diagonals become 

 edges. The minerals which crystallise in the first system, and 

 most commonly met with, are : 



Tetrahedron .... Grey Copper Ore. 

 ( Fluor Spar. 

 J Galena. 

 ) Rock Salt. 

 Vlron Pyrites. 

 f Alum. 

 {Spinelle. 



Cubo-octaliedron . . . Galena. 

 Khornbic Dodecahedron . Garnet. 



Six-faced Tetrahedron . . Diamond. 

 Six-faced Octahedron . . Garnet. 



Cube 



Octahedron 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. LIT. 



THE CONJUNCTION - THE INTEEJECTION. 



CONJUNCTIONS (from cum, with, and jungo, I join) are words 

 whose office is to connect words together. They are closely 

 allied to adverbs. It is sometimes not easy to determine 

 whether a word is a conjunction or an adverb. Therefore and 

 wherefore, for instance, have been called conjunctions ; they have 

 also been placed among the adverbs. If, however, we adhere to 

 our definitions, we should declare therefore and wherefore as con- 

 junctions, since they connect words rather than qualify a verb. 



Conjunctions also connect sentences. Those sentences may 

 be complete or incomplete. 



While conjunctions connect words they may disconnect ideas ; 

 for example : 



The man or the woman was drowned. 



The or connects together man and woman, but so as to leave 

 it doubtful of which of the two the assertion in the verb is to be 

 made. This view removes the apparent absurdity of what are 

 called disjunctive conjunctions, that is, in plain Saxon, not- 

 joining joiners. But a word may join in one way and disjoin in 

 another. 



Conjunctions may be divided into the copulative, the disjunc- 

 tive, and the cor responsive. 



The copulative are those which simply join words, as and. 



The disjunctive are those which while joining words disjoin 

 affirmations ; as or; for example : 



The man or the woman died. 



The corrcsponsive are such conjunctions as introduce corre- 

 sponding sentences or members of a sentence, forming in each 

 case a pair of corresponding or contrasted objects ; .as if 

 then; whether, or. 



1. Copulative Conjunctions. And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, 

 then, since, seeing, so, whereas, that. 



2. Disjunctive Conjunctions. Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, 

 although, yet, but, except, whether, less, unless. 



3. Corresponsive Conjunctions. Both and ; as as; as so; if then; 

 either or; neither nor; whether or; though yet. 



This division proceeds on the ground of the functions which 

 conjunctions discharge. If we contemplate conjunctions in 

 regard to their import also, we may divide them into these 

 classes : 



\. Copulative. And, also, both. 

 2. Disjunctive. Either, or, neither, 



nor. 

 S. Concessive. Though, although, 



albeit. 



4. Adversative. But, yet, notwith- 



standing, nevertheless. 



5. Causal. For, that, because. 



6. Inferential. Therefore, where- 



fore, seeing, since, forasmuch. 



7. Final. That, in order that, to 



the end that. 



8. Conditional. But, if. 



9. Exceptive. Unless, save, except. 

 10. Diminutive. At least. 



11. Laughter or Delight. Hz, ha ! 



12. Salutation. Welcome ! hail ' 



all hail ! 



13. Calling Attention. Ho ! lo ! ho 



there ! behold ! 



14. .Requiring Silence. Hush ! hist ! 



whist ! 's*> ! mum ! 



15. Surprise or Horror. Oh ! ha ! 



hah ! what ! 



16. Weariness or languor. Heigh 



ho ! oh dear ! oh dear me ! 



17. Stopping. Hold ! soft ! avast ! 



woh ! 



18. Parting. Farewell ! adieu ! 



19. Delecting. Oho!ah-ah! ay -ay! 



20. Interrogating. Eh ? what ? 



11. Dubitative. Whether or not. 



12. Expletive. Now, truly, indeed. 



13. Ordinaiive. Thereafter, finally, 



moreover, however. 



14. Declarative. Namely, to wit. 



The concessive are such as denote a concession or yielding. 

 The adversative are such as denote opposition or contrast. The 

 causal are such as denote a cause, occasion, reason, or ground. 

 The inferential are such as denote an inference or deduction. 

 The final are such as denote an end, aim, or object. The con- 

 ditional are such as denote a condition or requirement. The 

 expletive are such as denote words which fill up a sentence not 

 being absolutely necessary to the sense. The ordinative are 

 such as denote the order, rank, or succession of things or acts. 

 The declarative are such as supply explanations. 



Interjections (from inter, between, and jacio, I throiv) are words 

 which give expression to some sudden feeling or strong emotion 

 on the part of the speaker, as ! oh ' alas ! pshaw '. Interjec- 

 tions are in part inarticulate, being simply a breathing, as the 

 low, deep-sounding, long-drawn Oh ! of great pain. 



Some degree of order may be given to the interjections common 

 in our language. 



There are interjections of : 



1. Joy. Hey ! ho 



2. .Approbation. Good! bravo! 



well-done ! 



3. Sonw. Oh! ah! alas! well- 



a-day ! alack ! 



4. Wonder. Oh ! ha! indeed! 



strange ! when ! 



5. Pain or Fear. Oh ! ah ! oh dear ! 



6. Contempt. Pooh! pish! tush! 



pshaw ! tut ! humph ! 



7. -Aversion. Faugh ! off ! be- 



gone ! 



8. Disapprobation. Fie ! no ! 



9. Invocation. Eo ! what ho ! 



hollo ! hallo ! hoy ! ahoy ! 

 10. Exultation. Ah ! aha ! huzza ! 

 hurrah ! 



SYNTAX: SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

 AGREEMENT. 



The preceding lessons have had for their object to make the 

 student thoroughly familiar with the elements which enter into 

 the composition of the English language. Our business now is 

 to take them and put them together. And in doing so we must 

 be guided by fact and by law ; we must take lessons of wise 

 master-builders ; we must make their master-pieces our models. 



The constructive process which I here contemplate bears in 

 grammar the name of SYNTAX. The word is composed of two 

 Greek roots, namely, auv (sune), with, and rao-cro (tas'-so), I 

 arrange, and so denotes a systematic arrangement of words. 

 Consequently syntax is to the grammarian what the science of 

 architecture is to the builder ; it teaches the art of construction. 



Take this sentence and study it : 



Tlw sick man drinks pure U'afer copiously. 



What I now wish you to ascertain is, whether the proposition 

 is in its simplest form. In order to ascertain this, you must 

 distinguish between what is essential and what is not essential 

 in the sentence. Take then word after word, and put the ques- 

 tion, Is this essential ? If not, strike it out, and strike out 

 every word until you have reduced the proposition to its simplest 

 form, that is, the form a deviation from which would involve no 

 sense. 



The. Is this essential ? Yes, because some particular man is 

 intended. 



Sick. Is this essential ? No. Erase the word ; you modify, 

 but do not destroy the statement. 



Man. Is this essential ? Yes, because man is the very sub- 

 ject of the proposition, 



Drinks. Is this essential ? Yes, because drinks declares 

 what the man does : he drinks, and does not spin. 



Pure. Is this essential ? No, for though pure tells what sort 

 of water the man drinks, yet the proposition is not desti-oyed 

 by its omission. 



Water. Is this essential ? Yes, because water tells us what 

 the man drinks ; he drinks water, not wine. 



Copiously. Is this essential ? No ; copiously does indeed refer 



