SONS IN GEOLOGY. 



119 



(12.) Tho presence of en docs not, however, prevent the past 

 >na agreeing lit, When it has a direct object pro- 

 its auxiliary : 



Catiiut, naturally proud and im- 

 j>trio\u, tought in the de<ith of Cottar 



Cusiui, naturulloment fler et 

 HI. ue chore bait dan* la 

 !o CYar quo la vengeance 

 ! IUM injure* qu'il en avail 



replies. VEBTOT. 



!* (prices au del qui nous 



en a veng6a, COBNIILLI. 



only revenge far iom injuriei which, 

 he had received from him. 



Render thank* to Ileavn, which 

 hoi rtvtnged vtfor it. 



Jiully, \Vhon, being joined to an adverb of quantity, the latter 

 los the auxiliary : 



Plus il a eu de livres, plus il en 

 alUB. 



Plus il a on d'amii, mains il en 

 a consents. 



The more bookt h hat had, the 

 mart he hat read. 



The more friendi he has had, the 

 fewer he hat preserved. 



(13.) Le peu has in French two meanings : it signifies a small 

 quantity, or lack, absence. 



When it signifies a small quantity, the participle agrees with 

 the noun which follows le pea : 



The little affection which you hare 



Le pen d'affection quo vons 

 lui avez temoigne'e, lui a rendu 

 le courage. 



jhoirn dim, has restored hit courage. 



When le peu is used in the sense of lack, absence, the par- 

 ticiple remains unaltered : 



Le peu d'affection quo vous lui 

 avez temolgne', 1'a docouragd. 



The laclt of affection which you 

 have shown him, hat discouraged 



him. 



(14.) The past participles suppose", supposed; excepte, except; 

 passe, past ; compris, including ; joint, inclus, annexed,, in- 

 closed ; when their auxiliary is understood, agree with the noun 

 when it precedes them, and remain invariable when it follows 

 them : 



Vous trouverez d-jolnt la copie 

 de la lettre qne M. . . m'a < /rite. 

 J. J. ROUSSEAU. 



Le dessin de cet oiseau m'a etc 

 envoy(S d'Angleterre, avec la 

 description ci-jointe. BUFFON. 



Voi-.s trouverez ci-inclus, use 

 copie de ma lettre. DOMEKGUES. 



Je TOUB recommande les cinq 

 lettres ci-incluses. 



BEBKAHDIN DE ST. PIEERE. 



You will find annexed the copy of 

 the letter which Jf. . , has written 

 to me. 



The drawing of that bird came to 

 me from. England with the descrip- 

 tion here annexed. 



You will find inclosed, a copy of 

 my letter. 



I recommend to you the five letters 

 inclosed. 



132. THE ADVERB. EXILES. PLACE OF THE ADVERB. 



(1.) In French the adverb used to modify a verb in a simple 

 tense is generally placed after the verb : 



Quo de gens prennent hard!- How many people atsume boldly 

 ment le masque de la vertu ! tl\c mask of virtue I 



SCVDKRI. 



(2.) Adverbs of place, and those used in interrogations, have 

 the same place in French as in English : 



Ou cst votre frere ? II est id. Where it your brother 1 He it 

 here. 



(3.) In compound tenses the adverb is placed between the 

 auxiliary and the participle : 



Vous avez mal fait. I You have done wrong. 



II nous a bien refus. He received us well, 



(4.) Adverbs of manner ending in ment, may, in compound 

 tenses, be placed before the participle, or after it when they 

 are very long, or followed by other modifying words. When, 

 however, they are followed by such words, it is better to intro- 

 duce the clause or sentence by the adverb : 



Cela cst heureusement es- 



Cela est esprimtS heureuse- 

 ment. 



Heureusement il est venu <i 

 temps. 



That is Jiappily txprttsed. 

 He came fortunately in time. 



(5.) The adverbs aujourd'hui, 'to-day; demain, to-morrow; 

 bier, yesterday, may be placed before or after the verb, but 

 never between the auxiliary and the participle. The adverb 

 davantage, more, follows the participle : 



Nous (omroM arrive 1 * AUJOUr- 

 d'hul. 



Votre frere i'et blew*; bier. 



Aujourd'hui il fait bean tempi ; 

 domain il pleuvra. 



QlKAULT DUVTTIEB. 



Your broth* hurt htmftif y**rv 

 toy. 



To-day it ( /M veathtr s to- 



morrow it u ill rain. 



LESSONS IN GEOLOGY. XXIV. 



THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 



THE white cliffs of old England, bounding the coasts of the 

 south-east corner of our island, give an indication as to the 

 locality occupied by the cretaceous system. The chalk deposit 

 being the chief characteristic of the system, gives its name 

 (creta, chalk) to the whole, although, as may be supposed, 

 there are many strata which have not the well-known appear- 

 ance of that material. 



The members of the cretaceous system are thus classified : 



UPPER CRETACEOUS. 



1. Maestricht beds and Faxoe limestones. 



2. White chalk with flints. 



3. Grey chalk. 



4. Upper Greensand. 



5. Gault. 



LOWER CRETACEOUS OR NEOCOMIAK. 

 1. Lower Greensand. 



Weald clay. 

 Hastings sand. 



2. Wealden beds 



THE WEALD. 



Although the lowest member of the cretaceous group cannot 

 boast of occupying a large area, yet it balances the insignifi- 

 cance of its size by the interest of its associations. The name 

 by which those portions of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, where 

 its beds are deposited, are known the WoMs or Wealds has 

 been adopted by geologists to designate the formation. Pro- 

 bably its beds pass under the Channel, for we find the opposite 

 shore of the Straits of Dover exhibiting, in the neighbour- 

 hood of Boulogne, the same geological conformation. They 

 also appear in the southern half of the Isle of Wight. The 

 coast line occupied by the Weald extends from Dover to 

 Beachy Head. The wealden deposit owes its interest to the 

 fact that it is of /resft-water origin. We find no ammonites, 

 no echinites, no corals, not a shell which tells us of the presence 

 of the sea. But the Paludinae, the Melaniae, the bones of ter- 

 restrial animals, and the fossils of land plants, all declare that 

 the weald owes its existence to some great river which brought 

 down mud from the continent it drained, depositing a delta. A 

 change took place in the level of the land ; the region of the 

 weald, and all the south-east corner of England with a portion 

 of France, became covered with the waters of the cretaceous sea. 

 Ages then passed away, the elevation of the area returned, the 

 sea became dry land, the waters gathering themselves together 

 in other hollows. At this period the chalk beds completely 

 covered the wealden deposits, and we never should have sus- 

 pected their existence had not the chalk been removed and 

 these underlying beds exposed. That our knowledge of the 

 existence of the weald depends upon the denudation of the chalk 

 is clearly proved by an examination of the localities where the 

 weald clay meets the chalk, and there the clay is seen invariably 

 to pass beneath the chalk, and the chalk does not " thin out," 

 but terminates abruptly, forming what evidently was once a 

 steep escarpment, but which, in the lapse of ages, has had its 

 angles worn round, and now appears as a steep hill. 



The denudation of the Weald has been explained in various 

 ways. Scrope, Martin, and Hopkins ascribe it to volcanic 

 agency variously exhibited the debris being washed away by 

 currents. Professor Jukes and Professor Ramsay expressed 

 opinions that in the wearing away of the chalk, atmospheric 

 agency that is, the action of rain and rivers played at least 

 some part ; whilst Sir Charles Lyell depends on " the marine 

 theory" for its explanation, believing that the sea broke in, 

 owing to the depression of the land, and carried away the over- 

 lying chalk, exposing the wealden beds beneath. This ex- 

 planation was the one generally received until Messrs. Foster 

 and Topley produced facts so at variance with it that it must 

 be abandoned : (1.) If the sea had worn away the chalk, and 



