186 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



water suddenly liberated from them has often power enough to 

 hollow out a large excavation. Their origin ia not fully 

 understood. There is no doubt but that they are in many 

 respects closely allied to whirlwinds, but the electrical condition 

 of the air seems likewise to have much to do with their forma- 

 tion, as they are frequently accompanied by flashes of lightning. 

 The chief danger to ships in the neighbourhood of them arises 

 from the violence of the gusts of wind, and the sudden way in 

 which they shift about to different points of the compass. 



We will now turn our attention to the remaining meteors, 

 most of which may be classed as bhe luminous or optical pheno- 

 mena of the atmosphere. The most important of these are the 

 electrical, such as the lightning and the aurora borealis. 



The identity of lightning and electricity was conclusively 

 proved more than a century ago, by the celebrated kite experi- 

 ment of Franklin, in which he succeeded in drawing sparks from 

 a key attached to the string of his kite. The string became 

 moistened by the rain, and thus was converted into a conductor, 

 down which the electric fluid passed in a continuous stream. 



This experiment was performed just before a thunder-storm ; 

 the air is, however, always charged more or less with electricity, 

 the presence of which may be made manifest by a delicate elec- 

 troscope. In the instrument commonly employed, and repre- 

 sented in Fig. 10, the disc of the ordinary gold-leaf electroscope 

 is replaced by a slender rod, terminating in a metal point or 

 ball. 



The metal screen, A, serves to protect the glass bottle from 

 the rain, and thus improves the insulation. Two strips of gold 

 leaf are fastened to the inner end of the rod, and by their 

 divergence they show the quantity of electricity present in the 

 air. The apparatus should be placed in a somewhat elevated 

 position. 



Sometimes insulated conducting wires are fixed to lofty poles, 

 and the electricity of the air examined in this way. When this 

 is done, a large metal ball connected with the earth should bo 

 placed at a few inches from the wire, in case the lightning 

 should pass along it, and produce disastrous effects. Fatal 

 accidents have, indeed, arisen from want of due precaution, and 

 experiments of this kind should only be repeated with great 

 care. 



From long-continued series of observations, it is found that 

 the air is almost always charged with positive electricity, the 

 intensity of which increases with the elevation. The few occa- 

 sions on which negative electricity has been observed were for 

 the most part during heavy rain. 



The amount of electricity present in the air is at its maximum 

 in mid-winter ; it is subject also to a daily fluctuation, attaining 

 a maximum twice each day the first time in the morning, and 

 then again a little after sunset. 



There has been much inquiry as to the origin of this elec- 

 tricity. The following appear to be its principal sources : 

 When pure water is evaporated, no electricity is evolved ; but if 

 any salt or impurity be present in the water, electricity at once 

 appears. Now sea, river, and lake water all contain impurities, 

 and as the amount of evaporation that goes on is, as we have 

 seen, very great indeed, much of the atmospheric electricity may 

 probably be set down to this cause. 



Friction is another cause of electricity. The wind strikes 

 against terrestrial objects ; it is also frequently charged with 

 dust and particles of watery vapour, which rub against each 

 ether, and thus add to the friction, and in this way electricity 

 is set free. 



Vegetation and combustion seem also to increase the amount 

 of free electricity. To the latter of these causes must be attri- 

 buted the brilliant flashes of lightning which accompany vol- 

 canic eruptions (Fig. 11). 



TEEMS USED IN COMMERCE. VI. 



NOTING OF A BILL. A note taken of its presentation for ac- 

 ceptance or payment, customarily effected on a second presenta- 

 tion by a notary, as proof of the claim having been duly made. 



NULL AND VOID. Of no effect. 



ON DIT (People say). Placed at the beginning of a sentence 

 to denote that what fellows is a flying rumour. 



OPEN ACCOUNT. An account in Dr. and Cr. form, exhibiting 

 all open transactions between two parties, setting down the 



amounts of those transactions that are determined but not 

 matured, and estimating the out-turn of those still pending, so 

 that the balance shows a close estimate of the respective 

 position of the parties concerned in the account. 



OPEN POLICY. In marine insurance, where a certain sum is 

 insured, leaving the declaration of the gooda and their values to 

 be subsequently made. 



OPTIONS. Speculative transactions on the Stock Exchange, 

 where persons give so much per cent, for the option of buying 

 or selling so much stock at a fixed price on a certain fixed day. 



OVERCHARGE. An excessive charge or price. 



PANIC. A sudden fright, especially when without cause. 

 Used commercially to denote a general distrust with regard to 

 money matters. 



PAR. -r- Exact corresponding value, neither enhanced by 

 premium nor depreciated by discount. 



LESSONS IN SPANISH. XIX. 



THE PRONOUN. 

 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



THE personal pronouns of the nominative case, when used, 

 may come either before or after the verb, except the latter be in 

 the imperative mood, or the sentence be interrogative, in which 

 cases the nominative generally follows the verb ; as, viva ella, 

 may .she live ; <j ha hablado el ? has he spoken ? 



As the verb-ending generally indicates of itself the person 

 and number that its nominative must be, the nominative 

 personal pronouns are seldom expressed in Spanish, unless when 

 necessary to distinguish the persons or genders, or to be em- 

 phatic, or when a relative pronoun is to follow ; as 



Nosotros serainos castigados, y 

 no yosotros, we shall be punished, 

 and 7iot you. 



El qae tiene dinero, tiene cuida- 

 dos, Tie who Tias money has cares. 



El y ella son prudentes, Tie a?id 

 sTie are prudent. 



The pronoun se, oneself, is sometimes used with a reflective 

 or reciprocal verb, and then it is, to be rendered in English by 

 himself, herself, itselj, themselves, or one another, as the sense 

 may require ; as in the following example : 



Ellas se amau, They love themselves (or, tTiey love 



one another). 



The first objective case of all the personal pronouns is also 

 employed with reflective or reciprocal verbs ; as 



Yo no quero alabarme, I wish not 

 to praise myself. 



Nosotros nos aman, we love our> 

 selves (or each other). 



To me alabo, I praise myself. 



The pronoun se is also frequently used with the verb in the 

 active voice, of the third person singular or plural, to express 

 the passive voice ; as in this example : 



La casa se quemo, The house was burned (the liouse 



burnt itself). 



The first objective case of all the personal pronouns is some- 

 times used with a reflective verb in a passive sense ; as 



Yo me admiro, I am surprised (I 

 surprise myself). 



Vosotros os alegrais, you are re- 

 joiced (you rejoice yourselves). 



Strictly speaking, se cannot be used in the nominative case, 

 and should therefore always be considered as governed by a 

 verb. Thus, in such sentences as se dice, se cree, se piensa, the 

 literal rendering is, it says itself, it believes itself, it thinlcs 

 itself, or it is said, it is believed, it is thought. Still, in trans- 

 lating, it is often more convenient to imagine se as an indefinite 

 pronoun of the nominative case, used in the sense of they ; as, 

 se dice, they say, that is, people say ; se piensa, they think. 



Se and other pronouns of the first objective case are often 

 used in Spanish with neuter and active intransitive verbs reflec- 

 tively, and in such cases seem redundant in English ; as 



De alH se paso a la ciudad, thence I Yome arrepiento, I repent (myself), 

 he passed (himself) to the city. \ Se arrepiente, Tie repents (himself) . 



Se is sometimes used in the sense of to Mm, to Tier, to them, 

 to you (i.e., to your worship). This use of se takes place only 

 when another personal pronoun of the objective case and of the 

 third person immediately follows it ; as 



Tengo una cuehara ; se la dare,* J have a spoon ; I will give it to him. 



* We cannot say, le la dare, I will give it to him, but se la, dart. 



