214 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



comes a coating of gutta-percha, followed by a covering of jute. 

 Outside this last layer is the protecting sheath of the cable, 

 made of thick iron wires, each of which is covered with hemp, 

 and is otherwise protected from rust. The necessity of most 

 thorough insulation will be appreciated when it is remembered 

 that the water in which such a cable has to remain is itself a 

 good conductor of electricity. The smallest flaw in the pro- 

 tecting covering would most probably cause a leakage which 

 would ruin the cable. 



There are many forms of telegraph to which we have not 

 referred simply because they have not come to any practical 

 importance. Like all great discoveries, where a heap of con- 

 trivances are quickly evolved from inventive brains, there 

 is a process of natural selection through which such inventions 

 must pass. The survival of the fittest is the consequence of 

 such selection, and to those we have preferred to confine our 

 readers' attention. But there is one aspect of the modern 

 telegraph system which is so important that we must not pass 

 it over, and that is the possibility of sending more than one 

 message over the same wire at the same time. Let us once 

 more quote the words of Mr. Preece which bear upon this 

 subject : " In ordinary working only one message can be sent 

 in one direction at one time, but by a simple and ingenious con- 

 trivance, by which the neutrality of opposite currents is 

 utilised to convey signals, duplex telegraphy is rendered 

 possible, so that two messages can be sent on the same wire 

 at the same time ; and by a still further improvement, where 

 currents of different strength are utilised, four messages are 

 sent on ouo wire, two simultaneously in opposite directions 

 at the same time. There are in England 319 duplex and 

 13 quadruples circuits at work. 



" The acme of efficiency in telegraphy is attained in the 

 automatic system, in which manual labour is supplanted by 

 mechanism in transmitting the messages. There are 71 circuits 

 worked by these instruments, and 224 instruments in use, and 

 a speed of working of 200 words per minute is easily maintained 

 upon them. With the hand alone from 30 to 40 words per 

 minute is the maximum rate attained, but by automatic means 

 the limit is scarcely known. Since this system can be duplexed, 

 and in many cases is so, 400 words per minute on one wire 

 are easily sent. By the use of high-speed repeaters, the 

 length of circuit for automatic working is scarcely limited. It 

 would be easy to send 100 words per minute to India." 



LESSONS IN LATIN. LV. 



VERBS GOVERNED BY VERBS CONSECUTIO TEMPORUM. 



NOT only in moods but in tenses has one verb an influence on 

 another, in which case the latter may be said to be governed by 

 the former. The facts connected with the influence which the 

 tense of one verb has on the tense of another verb, combine to 

 form the doctrine of what, in grammatical language, is called 

 the consecutio temporum, or the sequence of the tenses. In the 

 nature of things, a certain tense comes properly after another, 

 and a certain other tense does not come properly after another : 

 for instance, it is sense to declare I hear what you say, but not 

 sense to declare I hear what you said, it being supposed that 

 in both cases the time remains present. Instead of I hear what 

 you said, the sense requires I hear what you say ; or, if a past 

 act is intended, then we may declare J heard what you said. 

 You thus see that the tense of the latter verb is governed or 

 determined by the tense of the former verb. The former verb 

 is independent of the latter, and the latter verb is dependent on 

 the former ; so that it may be laid down as a general fact or 

 law that the tense of the dependent verb is determined by the 

 tense of the independent verb. 



These general grammatical truths are recognised in Latin, but 

 recognised under some qualifications. A few particulars are all 

 that can here be given. A present then follows a present tense. 

 A present also follows a future tense, when the dependent verb 

 is in the subjunctive mood, for the Latins have no future sub- 

 junctive. If the independent verb is a preterite, the dependent 

 verb must be a preterite subjunctive. But in Latin the preterite, 

 for instance docui, has two significations, for docui means either 

 I taught or I have taught. In the first an act is spoken of as 

 merely and absolutely past; this is called an aorist, that is, an 

 undefined past tense, or a past tense unlimited as to particulars, 



whether past in relation to another past act, or in relation to a 

 present act. But docui in the sense I have taught has a relation 

 to the present time, I have recently taught, indicating an act 

 which in itself or its consequences comes down to or near to the 

 present time. Now, when you wish to know what tense to put 

 after docui a preterite, you must learn whether or not the verb is 

 used in the aorist or indefinite sense, or in the sense of a perfect 

 present. If the preterite or perfect is a perfect present, then the 

 dependent verb will be a preterite subjunctive ; if the preterite is 

 employed as an aorist, then the dependent verb or verbs must 

 be in the imperfect or the pluperfect. The preterite used as an 

 aorist is called the historic preterite, or the preterite of narration, 

 because it is employed in historical narrative, whose general office 

 it is to speak of the past indefinitely, that is, simply as past. The 

 following table will exhibit the chief facts of the 



CONSECUTIO TEHPORUM. 



Imp. Videbam") quidageres. 



Pres. Video "S 



Perf.Pres. Vidi I quid agas, or 



1st Put. Videbo ( quid egeris. 



2nd Put. VideroJ 



Pres. Rogo 



Perf.Pres. Rogavi 



1st Flit. Rogabo 



2nd Flit. Rogavero 



Pres 



Per 



ut scribas. 



res. Hoc ideo facio "\ 

 trf.Pres. Hoc ideo feci (^ut intel- 



2ncl Fut. Hoc ideo fecero 



Aorist. Vidi 



Plup. Videram J quid agisses. 



Imp. Rogabam ^j 



Aorist. Rogavi vut scriberes. 



Plup. Rogaveram J 



Imp. Hoc ideo faciebaml , 

 <._ * tr_- -i r I utintol- 



(" ligas. Aorist. Hoc ideo feci >V ~ 

 J Plup. Hoc ideo feceramj llsere 



After the imperative stands the present or the future ; as 

 Scribi milri quid agaa, or quid egeris ; cura ut'valeas. 



VERBS AND RELATIVES. 



In compound sentences one of the members may be intro- 

 duced by a relative. This is called a relative member or clause : 

 for example 



Is, qui omnia tenet, favet ingeniia, 

 He K/IO possesses all things patronises talent ; 



where qui omnia tenet is a relative member, so called because it 

 is introduced by qui. The sentence is obviously made up of 

 two sentences, as may be thus seen in these examples : 

 Chief Sentence. Is favet ingeniis. 

 Relative Sentence. Qui omiiia tenet. 



CHIEF SENTENCE. RELATIVE SENTENCE. 



Cuesar in fines Ainbianorum pervenit, qui se ei dedidoruut. 



Casar came into the tomtoms of the Ambiani, who surrendered to him. 

 Virtuti opera danda esfc, sine qua virtutem assequi non possumus, 

 To virtue w must pay attention, without which all are unable to attain virtue. 



In these cases the relative merely qualifies tho meaning. 

 These, therefore, are illustrations of qualification, and not of 

 government. But besides qualifying, a relative in union with a 

 verb, or what is called a dependent relative, may govern tho 

 verb which is in a state of dependence. The dependent verb 

 must be in the dependent, or what is commonly called the sub- 

 junctive (subjoined) mood. The general rule may be stated in 

 these words : A relative dependent clause takes its verb in the 

 subjunctive mood. Observe that the construction implies two 

 things, namely, that the clause is a dependent, and that the 

 clause is a relative clause ; merely a relative clause does not 

 require a subjunctive mood ; and a dependent verb, wo have 

 already seen, may be in the infinitive mood ; as 

 Scio quid hoc sit, 

 I know what this is. 



Here sit is in the subjunctive mood by tho force of scio quid. 

 The sentence consists of two members or two sentences thus, 

 hoc est tale, and scio hoc esse tale ; the two put together make 

 scio quid hoc sit. Note that the Latin sit is represented by the 

 English is; consequently, in relative dependent clauses you 

 must turn the Latin subjunctive into an English indicative, and 

 the English indicative into a Latin subjunctive. Tho phrase 

 nescio quid hoc scit may be regarded as an indirect question ; 

 thus, quid est hoc ? what is that ? nescio, I know not ; or, in 

 full, nescio quid hoc sit. Indirect questions have the second 

 verb in the subjunctive mood. 



The usages of the subjunctive mood in Latin, which aro 

 numerous, and which require study and practice to be clearly 

 and fully understood, may in general be traced to the fact that 

 the subjunctive is, in its essence, the mood which denotes 

 dependence. Hence, when dependence is to be expressed other- 



