THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



generally require the preposition d before the noun to which the 

 action of the verb passes over ; aa 



Ella se parece a su madre, She resembles her mother. 



Demanda sabiduria al Seaor, He asks wisdom from (to) the 



Lord. 

 Sometimes verbs having the sense to remove or to take away, 



require the preposition d before the noun to which the action of 



the verb passes over ; as- 

 Cain quito la vida a su hermano Cain look away the life of (to) his 



Abel, brother Abel. 



Cortaron la cabeza a Saul, They cut off the head of (to) Saul. 



Verbs denoting to be abundant, to lack, to be astonished, to 



blame, to repent, to pity, to make use, to absolve, to make sport, 



to remember, to forget, indirectly govern a noun by means of the 



preposition de; as 



Los valles abundau de trigo, 



The valleys abound with (of) 

 wheat. 



The disciples were astonished at 

 (of) the words. 



They fitted the house with (of) dogs. 



Los discipulos se asombrarou de 

 BUS palabras, 



Llenarou la casa de perros, 



Olvidar, to forget, is followed by de only when it is used as a 

 reflective verb ; as 



Olvidarse de lo pasado,* To forget the past. 



Olvidar su nombre, To forget his name. 



The verb ser, when used to imply property or possession, 

 requires the noun denoting the possessor to be preceded by the 

 preposition de ; as 



El libro es de mi padre, The book belongs to (is of) my 



father. 



De generally precedes nouns which denote the causes of 

 which the verb explains the effect ; as 



Tieinbla de miedo, He tremble* with (from) fear. 



Tirita de frio, H shivers with (of) cold. 



Sua ojos se banaron de lagrimas, His eyes were wet with (of) tears. 



The preposition d (to) should not be used in Spanish when 

 we speak of motion merely directed towards a place, but hdcia 

 and para ; as 



Esta caininando hacia Tolosa, He is journeying towards Tolosa. 



Mi padre salio para Madrid, My father set out for Madrid. 



Gerunds require the same prepositions as the verbs from 

 which they are derived ; as 



Acordandose de sus obras, Remembering his works. 



USE OF THE VERBS SER AND ESTAR. 



The right manner of using the verbs ser and estar being of 

 great importance, and yet attended with some difficulty to 

 students, we will give a few explicit rules. 



Ser is used to affirm the existence of essential, natural, per- 

 manent, or characteristic states or qualities of the mind, persons 

 or things, and to affirm what, or of what a person or thing is, 

 was, or will be ; as 



El yelo es frio, ice is cold. 



Soy soberbio, I am proud. 



Londres no es pequena, London 

 is not small. 



Perdoiiar las injurias es obrar 

 coino Cristianos, to forgive injuries 

 is to act like Christians. 



The natural beauties of the body, and its defects when 

 regarded as permanent, are affirmed with ser ; as 



La miel es dulce, honey is sweet. 



Es tarde, it is late. 



Pedro era capitan, ahora es 

 mayor, y sera coronel, Peter teas 

 captain, now is major, and viitt be 

 colonel. 



Lucia es hermosa, Lucy is beau- 

 tiful. 



Ella es corcobada y ciega.t she 

 is hump-backed and blind. 



The materials of which anything is made are affirmed by 

 ser ; also the possession or destination of anything ; as 



La taza es de oro, the cup isof\ Es de dia, it is day. 

 Sold. Este vino es de Espafia, this 



La corona es de la reiua, the \ wine is from Spain, 

 crown is the queen's. Esta flor es para Maria, ihis 



Cervantes es de Alcala, Cer- flower is for Mary, 

 vantes is from Cicala. 



Estar is used to affirm the temporary, non-natural, accidental, 

 or contingent condition or location of persons or things, 

 transient emotions of the mind ; that is. to affirm how or 

 where a thing exists, existed, or will exist, at any period of 

 time ; as 



* Literally, to forget oneself of the past. 

 f That is, permanently blind. 



Estoy alegre, I am merry. 

 Esta enfadado, he is angry. 

 Yo estaba ciego,* I was blind. 



El tiempo estara nublado, the 

 weather will be cloudy. 



El mar esta airado, the sea is 

 raging. 



The physical changes, and state of the health of the animal 

 body, as also the chemical and mechanical changes of sub- 

 stances, are affirmed by estar ; as 



Vmd. esta despierto, yo-a are 

 awake. 



Estoy buenOj I am well. 

 Yo estaba cojo, I was lame. 

 La leche esta agria, the milfc is 

 sour. 



La carne estaba asada, the meat 

 u'as roasted. 



In affirming any manner, situation, position, or location of 



persons or things, estar is used 

 Juan esta de moda, John is in 



the fashion. 



Esta de rodillas, he is on (his) 



fences. 



Estoy de prisa, I am in haste. 



as 



La comida esta en la mesa, the 

 dinner is on the table. 



^ Donde esta mi padre? whera 

 is my father ? 



Esta en la cama, fee is in bed. 



Ellos estan leyendo, they are 



ing. 

 Estoy escribiendo, / am writing. 



Estar (and not ser) is always employed before the gerund, 

 since this serves to show the manner of being occupied ; as 



Jorge esta silbando, George is 

 whistling. 



Ella estara reganando, she will 

 be scolding. 



Estar is sometimes used with a preposition to form a par- 

 ticular idiomatic phrase ; thus estar sin means to be destitute of; 

 estar a, to understand; estar en, to be resolved on, to know. 



The manner of using ser and estar, in forming the passive 

 voice, has already been explained. 



HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. X. 



RESPIRATION. 



THE parts concerned in the function of respiration are the 

 windpipe, or trachea, and the lungs, included in their serous 

 sacs the pleurae. The trachea, or windpipe, is a cylindrical 

 tube, partly membranous and partly cartilaginous, about four 

 and a half inches in length and three-quarters of an inch in 

 diameter, which latter is always greater in man than woman. 

 It extends from the lower extremity of the larynx (the organ of 

 voice), the upper opening of which was described as lying in 

 front of the oesophagus, protected by the epiglottis, to opposite 

 the third dorsal vertebra, where it divides into two bronchi, 

 one for each lung. The right bronchus, wider but shorter than 

 the left, is about an inch in length, and continues more in a 

 straight line with the canal of the trachea than the left ; from 

 which cause, and on account of its greater width, any foreign 

 substance introduced into the windpipe almost universally 

 falls into the right, and not into the left bronchus. 



The left bronchus is nearly two inches in length, and enters 

 the left lung on a lower level by nearly an inch than the right 

 bronchus does the right lung. In structure the trachea and 

 bronchi coincide ; they are made up of cartilaginous rings or 

 rather half rings, the hinder portion of the rings being absent 

 and membrane, which latter completes the circle, and joins the 

 various rings together. In the trachea there are from sixteen 

 to twenty of these incomplete rings, in the right bronchus from 

 six to eight, and in the left from nine to twelve. The interior 

 of the canal is lined with mucous membrane, continuous above 

 with that of the larynx, and below with that of the lung ; over- 

 lying the cartilaginous and membranous walls are some elastic 

 tissue and muscular fibres of the organic type. 



Each lung is enclosed in a membrane called the pleura. This 

 is one of the serous membranes, and is consequently a shut sac, 

 having a double wall : the inner one, which covers the surface 

 of the lung, is called the visceral ; the outer, lining the walls of 

 the thorax, the parietal portion. The space between the two 

 is the cavity of the pleura, which in the healthy state contains 

 a small quantity of fluid, to enable the walls to glide easily on 

 each other without friction. The two pleurae do not communi- 

 cate, but are in relation with each other, except for a short 

 distance in front ; this space between them, which contains the 

 heart enclosed in the pericardium and the large blood-vessels, ie 

 called the mediastinum. The right pleural sac is shorter and 

 wider, and extends higher into the neck than the left. 



The lungs, the most important organs of respiration, are two 



* That is, transiently blind. 



