266 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



from them find their way through a channel or passage up into 

 the box and to the interior of the covered linen bag. Here 

 the hot fumes, charged as they are with carbon, in a minute 

 and in fact almost an impalpable condition, become condensed, 

 and the rich black powder, resulting from the condensation, 

 rapidly and thickly deposits itself on the interior of the linen 

 cone or bag, and as continuous volumes of thick, heavy smoke, 

 which are produced by the constant addition of fresh fuel to 

 the furnace, flow outwards and upwards, they continue to con- 

 tribute their quota to the deposit in the cone. This in time 

 becomes so thickly coated with carbon that it becomes necessary 

 to remove the contents. This is done by first thoroughly beat- 

 ing the outsides of the cones with sticks, and then passing the 

 powder downwards through channels to barrels placed for the 

 reception of the lampblack. 



P. abies, or the Norway spruce, is remarkable as being one 

 of the loftiest trees found growing in Europe, growing not un- 

 commonly to a height of 150 feet. It is commonly straight and 

 pyramidal in form. The cone, seed, and form of foliage are 

 represented at Fig. 3. The timber from this tree is of excellent 

 quality, and is especially well adapted for the manufacture of 

 ladders and flag-poles. It is from the juice of this tree that 

 the Burgundy pitch of commerce is made. This is not the 

 description of spruce from which the drink made from essence 

 of spruce and spruce loppings is obtained, P. alba, or the 

 white spruce. For a description of the manufacture of spruce 

 essence and bark bread, we must refer our readers to our next 

 paper, in which we shall give an account of the trees of which 

 the cones are shown in Figs. 4 and 5. 



LESSONS IN GREEK.- 



SYNTAX. 



-L. 



WE pass on to the consideration of Syntax. The word syntax 

 comes from the Greek O-VVTO.IS, which signifies an orderly ar- 

 rangement. Syntax, therefore, is the science which teaches the 

 orderly arrangement of words. If the student analyse a pro- 

 position, he will find that in its simplest state a proposition or 

 sentence contains a subject and something that is said of that 

 subject. Take as an instance 



77 yvvr) (or yvvrj) fffri KctATj, the woman (or a woman) is fair. 



Here rj yvvij (or 71*1/77) is the subject. Of that subject it is 

 said that it (she, >] 71*1/17) is fair (e<m /CO\TJ). We have, then, 

 here two things to be considered namely, fi 7111/77 and tern KO\JJ. 

 The former is the subject of the sentence, inasmuch as it is that 

 of which something is declared. The latter is called the pre- 

 dicate of the sentence, inasmuch as it is that which is predicated 

 or declared of the subject. 



The predicate consists of two words, namely, e<m KO\TJ a 

 verb and an adjective. Two things are requisite in a predicate, 

 namely, a verb and an adjective, participle, or other part of 

 speech implying an attribute or quality ascribed to the subject ; 

 the verb performing the office of ascribing or referring the 

 quality to the subject. The verb, as connecting the attribute 

 with the subject, is called the copula or link. 



Subject. Predicate. 



tj yvvij 



ATTRIBUTE. 

 /COA.7J. 



The second sentence, yon will see, is logically equivalent to 

 the first. In consequence, TPX*' contains in itself a copula and 

 an attribute, rpex" (runs) being regarded as equivalent to 

 tffn rpexouo-o (is running), and is in itself the predicate of the 

 proposition. 



Without these parts you cannot have a complete proposition ; 

 yet, especially in the Greek language, the copula is often under- 

 stood that is to say, it exists in the mind, and does not appear 

 in the utterance or in the writing. 



^ Instead of the intransitive verb rpexei, we will put a transi- 

 tive verb, and then you will see another element of thought 

 appears : 



SUBJECT. 



i] yvvrj (or 701/77) 

 the (or a) woman 



PREDICATE. 



rvirrei 

 strikes 



OBJECT. 



TOV vlov (or vlov), 

 the (or a) son. 



Here' you have to contemplate what we have termed the 

 object, namely, TOV vlov. The object is so named because it is 

 the object of the action of the verb, that thing or being on 

 which the action of the verb falls ; the object struck is here the 

 son. 



In these simple statements you have the essential elements, 

 first, of all syntax, and, secondly and specifically, of all the 

 Greek syntax. Syntax has nothing else to do than to show in 

 detail what is here set forth generally. It is the office of 

 Syntax to show how each part may be modified, and how the 

 several parts must grammatically stand to each other. 



Of Greek syntax the essential laws are implied in the sen- 

 tences just given. It will be seen in the first sentence that the 

 predicate is in one sense identical with the subject ; for the 

 attribute fair belongs to the woman ; tern is merely the connect- 

 ing link. The copula identifies the two. Consequently KOATJ 

 and yvvri refer to the same person, and, referring to the samo 

 person, they combine to describe that person. As they then 

 agree so as to be one in fact or in thought, so must they agree 

 so as to be one in form. Hence arises the first concord, namely, 

 that 



Adjectives must agree with their substantives in gender, 

 number, and case. 



Take gender first. Tvvr) is of the feminine gender, therefore 

 we write KOCATJ. If we had written KO.\OS, we should have con- 

 nected a masculine adjective with a feminine noun, and com- 

 mitted the solecism of declaring the luoman a fair man. 



In the second place, they must agree in number. If we had 

 written /caAai, then we should have made the woman at once 

 singular and plural, intimating that she was one and more than 

 one person. In the third place, had we written /caATjs, we should 

 have produced a different sense, for, by disconnecting icaAT? from 

 yvvrj, the predicate from the subject, we should have said some- 

 thing of this kind, " the woman is (the daughter or the mother) 

 o/the fair one." 



In the same way, the article (which is a qualifying, that is, 

 determinative word) must also agree in form with its noun, 

 seeing that it of necessity agrees in sense, both referring to the 

 same object. 



As adjectives and substantives which agree in sense must 

 agree in form, so 



The subject must agree with its verb in number and case. 



(1.) Number. If we had put before the verb tern a plural 

 subject, as at ywautts, saying the woman is fair, then we should 

 have represented the subject as at the same time plural and 

 singular. Similarly erroneous would it have been had we written 

 fiffi (they are) for ecrri (she is). 



(2.) Case. Take the example 77 yvvij rvirrei TOV vlov. In this 

 example we know that TOV vlov is the object, or receives the 

 action implied in TIHTT, because it is in the case of the object, 

 the objective or accusative case. Instead of being TOV vlov, 

 were it & vlos, we should not know which of the two, }) yvvrj or 

 6 vlos, was the subject. And if -t] yvvij were TTJJ/ yvvaiKa, then, 

 o vlos remaining the same, the sense would be the son struck 

 the mother ; for in Greek the sense depends on the form of the 

 words, not their arrangement. 



Observe, moreover, that KOATJ is in the same case as 7111/77, 

 though a verb comes between them. That verb is eori. Hence 

 you may infer, as a general rule, that the verb elvai has the 

 same case after it as before it. The reason is found in the fact 

 already mentioned that tivai, as a copula, merely unites the 

 attribute with the subject. 



The subject may be involved in the verb, being indicated by 

 the person-ending, as TVTTTW TOV vlov, I strike my son, where 

 subject and verb blend together in TVTTTU. Another change 

 may be undergone, for the verb may contain the whole of the 

 predicate as well as the subject, as Tpt^u>, I am running. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 



If, after these general explanations, we proceed to consider 

 the particular parts of a simple sentence, we come first to the 

 subject. The subject is commonly a noun or substantive, pro- 

 perly so called, since it is only of a substance or a reality that 

 a statement may be made. But, instead of a substantive itself, 

 we may have a representative of a substantive. A substantive 

 may be represented by an adjective or participle used substan- 

 tively. A substantive may also be represented by an infinitive 

 mood with the article ; also the personal pronouns or the da- 



