INDUSTRIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF COMMERCE. 



:tiv pronouns may be employed as nuhjocta, instead of 



: tivci. In -h . .rt.iinv .1' \v(irds tliat 



have a bubatantivu force may stand as the Hubjoct of a pro- 



'!'!: employment u," ad i tho sense of Hiibatantivon in 



..inn. in in i.!-. ok tliau iu English. AdjoctivoB are used 

 UH nouns 



(1.) To <lonote persons either with or without the article. 



Tim.- i >>, .'"" i in, may dignify a foreigner and a guest ; and & 



{*vot, the guest ; KoAot, a handsome man ; KaArj, a handsome 



A participle may also have the force of a noun, as 



& naBwv, he who In is It-m-ut, that is, the scholar. Less frequently 



is tho ii. 'liter i.sed to describe a person ; thus, however, TO 



upptv, flu- wan, is employed, and TO flijAu, Me woman ; or when 



a class or general idea is intended, as TO 'EAA^coroc, the Grecian 



, TO iinriKov, the cavalry, or cavalry ; TO tnov, youth. 



(-.) The neuter of the adjective u often used to express rela- 

 tion of space, as TO fj.t<rw, the middle; TO o-xaToj>, the extremity, 

 the brink ; also to express relations of time, as tin iroAu, for a 

 long while. 



Tho singular is often employed to signify a plural object 

 when that object is considered collectively, and so presents to 

 the mind tho idea of one, unity. Thus, as we speak of plate 

 for silver utensils, so the Greeks used apyvpot, articles of silver; 

 Xpwos, articles of gold, "gold plate;" Kepofios, earthenware; 

 x\iv')os, stoneivare ; Kapa, palisades. 



Sometimes the subject is not expressed by a separate word, 

 as when the subject is a personal pronoun for example, ypa<f>o- 

 (itv, we write. It is also omitted with what are called imper- 

 sonal verbs, as v<pi, it snows ; Pporra, it thunders ; affrpairrti, 

 it lightens. 



Tho subject has sometimes to be learnt from the connection, 

 as in <pao-i, they affirm; \tymnrt, they say av6panrot, or some- 

 thing of tho kind, being implied. 



If, however, it is intended to present tho subject with any 

 emphasis, then the subject, even if a pronoun, must be ex- 

 pressed. Consequently, when the personal pronoun is used, 

 you may infer that emphasis is intended : thus, n <j>ys; is simply 

 what dost thou say ? but n trv <p?s is what dost thou say ? 



CONCORD OF THE PARTS OP A SENTENCE. 



The form of the subject has great influence on tho form of 

 the other parts of a sentence. The form of the subject deter- 

 mines the form of the copula. The form of the subject deter- 

 mines also the form of the attribute, when that attribute is an 

 adjective. That is to say, if the subject is in the first person, 

 the copula or verb must be in the first person. The two must 

 also be in the same number, and the attribute must agree with 

 the subject in gender, in number, and in case. If, however, 

 tho attribute is a noun, then it may agree in case only, or in 

 case and number, as irapoSejy/uo tipi tyw, I am an example, 

 where iraoaSei-y/ia is of tho neuter gender, while tyw is masculine 

 or feminine. 



A subject in the neuter plural takes its verb in the singular, 

 as faa irairra 6vr)ra irt6uKf, all animals are naturally mortal. 



With personal nouns, however, the plural is used when the 

 idea of plurality is made prominent, as TO. yufipa/cta tiryvtaav TOV 

 \t\ovra, the young men (individually) applauded the speaker. 



If the subject is a collective word, and if its parts rather than 

 its totality are regarded, then, though singular in form, it will 

 take a verb in the plural ; as TO o - TpaToir5oj' avtxvpow, the 

 camp (the soldiers) returned. 



When the subject consists of two or more nouns, the verb is 

 in the plural. The rule remains if both nouns are of the singu- 

 lar number, though sometimes the verb agrees with tho nearest 

 noun, and is then in tho singular ; for example, ij wryp xai 77 

 Ovyarrjp r\aav KoAou, the mother and the daughter were fair ; 

 <pt\tt <rt o iroTTjp /ecu TI juTjTt/p, thy father loves thee, also thy 

 mother. 



If the subjects are of one gender, then the predicate must be 

 of that same gender ; but if the subjects are in part masculine 

 and in part feminine, then the predicate must be masculine ; if, 

 again, the subject is in the neuter gender, or has reference to 

 things, then the predicate is neuter. 



When subjects of several persons are united, the first person 

 determines the person of the verb ; if there is no first person, 

 then the person of the verb is determined by the second person ; 

 any way the verb is in the plural. 



When the subject is a general idea, the predicate may be in 

 the neuter singular, whatever the number or gender of the 

 : as ai >*Ta/30Aai At/irTjpoc, rhanyn are a painful thing. 



With a dual subject the verb in in the dual if the two object* 

 are considered specially a two, otherwise the verb may be in 

 the plural ; and thus a verb in the plural may follow a verb in 

 the dual, because tho idea of the duality u now lost. This is 

 an inutance of that agreement which is caliad Kara evnaiv, tht 

 agreement according to the tense, in opposition to the agreement 

 according to the sound or tho form. 



When a pronoun refers to a noon, it agrees with that noon 

 in gender, number, and ease ; though sometimes a demonstra- 

 tive pronoun is put in tho neuter gender. If the pronoun is a 

 personal pronoun, then the noun and the pronoun agree also in 

 person. 



Tho verbal adjectives in TOT and TOJ, when used, like the 

 Latin gerund, impersonally, stand mostly in the neuter plural. 



EXERCISE 135. GREEK-ENGLISH. 



1. 0X1701 tfiippovts iro\\ti>v a.<ppov<av tpo&tpwjfpoi. 2. O/ryi| 

 (piAowTwi/ 0X170? iff\vti \povov. 3. To>c Kaxwr, <f>a<ri, irAticv tart 

 Kara rov /3iov TJ ruv ayaOwv. 4. 'H \uipa. voAAa x opttva. 5. 

 'H yfoipyia $vx"n ft x* iUMVO * Kai ^X*'J Otpout t8i{tt Kapriptir. 

 6. Ai fjitv VTUX Tal Kcwciai ffvyKpinrrova-ty, ai 8 Suervpa^ttt 

 Taxa>* Ka.Tcupat>f?s iroiovaiv. 7. E.TTH ol iroAt^iiot atnj\8ov, *KTipvf 

 rots 'EAATjo'i irapaffKvaffaffdat. 8. Tptis T\\9ov. 9. 'O atxpos 

 fvSaificav fffTtv. 10. OI iraAai nffay avSpnoi. 11. Ot -rtpi 

 M<ATia5T}i/ KaAwr tiunxtaavro. 12. To tiZcurKfiv KaAov ttrrur. 

 13. To ft ffvi'8(ff/j.os tffnv. 14. ATTOKTO/U fft' tru 8c . OVK (yet at 

 airoKTtvw, aAA" 6 TTJJ iroAtw* PO/UO*. 15. Tlairrn tiraivovntr a 

 ffv \fyts. 16. 2ai/cpaTT)j act ijf tv ftp <f>ai>tptf' irptairt yap tit TOM 

 irepdraTOv? KCLI ra yvu-vaaia rjti, KO.I TO Aoiirov att TTJJ rj^tpat iff 

 6iroV ir\ftffTOU fi\\oi ovvfOta6a,i. 17. AS^Aov TO ^.eAAoy. 18. 

 @av Suva/it* fjLtyiffrn. 19- QinjTOi oi acdpairoi. 20. 'EAAiji' ty*. 

 21. Oi/x 1 v f f ovtv ttxaioffvyris ayadov troKirtv ytrtirOai. 



EXERCISE 136. ENOLISH-GBEEK. 



1. Six (persons) came. 2. We two came. 3. He and you 

 are good. 4. My father and I are good. 5. Xenophon was 

 chosen general. 6. Those two men were chosen generals, and 

 they prepared to go against the enemy. 7. I say that thon art 

 bad. 8. Thou (sayest so) ? 9. I say it. 10. You are wise, 

 not they. 11. We are Greeks. 12. Future things are uncer- 

 tain. 13. Man is mortal. 14. My sister is mortal. 15. My 

 brothers and sisters are mortal. 16. You and I are mortal. 

 17. That is folly. 18. To be sound-minded is wisdom. 19- 

 The market and the whole city are filled. 20. We and they 

 write. 21. He and I write. 22. Democracy is not a good thing. 

 23. The men, the women, the children have been prepared. 24. 

 Are riches a sign of happiness ? 25. Riches are not a sign of 

 happiness. 



INDUSTRIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

 OF COMMERCE. 



CHAPTER XVII. COMMERCE OP THE ARABS 



Barbary. Barbary was the Arabic term vaguely used before 

 the Saracen conquest to designate the Mediterranean States of 

 Africa, from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. Part of this region 

 was anciently known as Mauritania. The Saracens from Egypt 

 overran these territories for a distance of 2,000 miles, and 

 governed them by a viceroy from Damascus. 



The breaking up of the first Caliphate induced the Barbary 

 Arabs to imitate the invaders of Spain, and establish an indepen- 

 dent sovereignty, under the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt. Kairwan, 

 the capital, founded in 670, and situated twelve miles south of 

 Tunis, was the residence of the viceroy. Though now a town but 

 little known, it was then the nucleus from which radiated caravan 

 routes to the east, west, and south. In the heart of the city was 

 a grand mosque, 250 yards long by 150 broad. It was sur- 

 mounted by a white marble cupola, supported upon 32 columns of 

 the same costly material, while 414 stone pillars formed a portion 

 of the general structure. From this centre led splendid streets, 

 through which circulated a continual trade to the seven gates 

 of the city. Of these streets, the one to the. Spring Gate and 

 that to the Tunis Gate were lined on each side for a length of 

 over two miles with shops displaying the produce of every clime, 



