THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



disagreeable repetition of sound, is placed to the last adverb 

 only; as 



Mi ammo es explicar lisa y My intention is to explain clearly 

 llanamente, and plainly. 



In all languages there are certain phrases used adverbially, 

 the words of which, taken collectively, have an idiomatic 

 meaning, but taken separately would make no sense. Thus in 

 English the adverbial locutions by-and-by, at least, none at all, 

 would signify nothing intelligible if taken literally, word by 

 word ; but as adverbial phrases, they are very expressive. It is 

 often thus in Spanish : a mere literal translation of the words 

 will do little or nothing toward assisting us to comprehend the 

 meaning. Such phrases will generally be found explained in 

 their adverbial sense in dictionaries. Some of the most common 

 are eiven in the following list : 



A conciencia, conscientiously. 



A la verdad, truly. 



A vista de ojos, evidently, at a 



glance. 



A sabiendas, /cnowingly. 

 Al seguro, securely. 

 A buen seguro, certainly. 

 Antes con antes, as soon as possible. 

 Ahora, ahora, just now. 

 A mas correr, with, the utmost 



speed. 



.A mas tardar, after great delay. 

 A la improvista, unexpectedly. 

 A trechos, at internals. 

 A una, together, in company. 

 A la contiuua, continually. 

 A hecho, indiscriminately. 

 Al paso que, in i^roportion as. 

 A pie 1 , on foot. 



A buen hora, eoj-ly, seasonably. 

 A la hora, at the nicfc of time. 

 Algun tiempo hace, some time 



since. 

 Al rove's, wrong side outwards, on the 



contrary way. 

 A mas no poder, with, all one's 



might. 



A la sordina, noiselessly, slyly. 

 A escondidas, or a escondidillas, 



secretly, stealthily. 



Al buen punto, pointedly, oppor- 

 tunely. 

 A saltos y corcovos, by fits and 



starts. 

 A la corta 6 a la larga, sooner or 



later. 



Al ojo, at sight. 

 Al punto, instantly. 

 A tieutas, in a groping manner. 

 A mas tirar, to the utmost. 

 A tuerto 6 a derecho, right or 



wrong, hit or miss. 

 A secas y sin Hover, tctt/ioiit pre- 

 paration or advice. 

 A. solas, by one's self, in private. 

 A bueua luz, care/ully, with due 



examination. 



A dos luces, ambiguously. 

 A trompa y talega, helter-skelter, 



con/tisedly. 

 Baxo mano, in, an wideband 



manner. 



Bien como, just as. 

 Casi casi, very nearly. 

 Cuanto antes, as soon as possible. 

 Cuanto tiempo, how long. 

 Cuando me'nos, at leas*. 

 Cuando mucbo, at most. 

 De coutado, readily, immediately. 

 De seguro, of course. 

 De cuando en cuando, from time to 



time, now and then. 

 De improviso, unexpectedly, on a 



sudden. 

 De aqui para alii, to and fro, here 



and there. 



De antes, of old, of yore. 

 De contfnuo, continually. 

 De intento, purposely. 



De proposito, on purpose. 



De hecho, i?i fact, actually. 



De noehe, by night. 



De dia, by day. 



De salto, suddenly. 



De por si, by one's se7/, apart. 



De silla a silla, face to face. 



De tropel, in confusion, pell-mell. 



De lance, cheaply, secondhand. 



De consiguieute, consequently. 



En coucie'ucia, in good earnest. 



En especial, especially. 



En seguida, afterward. 



En tanto or entro tanto, in (he 



meantime, whilst. 

 En alguna parte, somewhere. 

 En niuguna parte, nowhere. 

 En otra parte, elsewhere. 

 En alguna otra parte, somewhere 



else. 



En ninguna otra parte, nowhere else. 

 En cualquiera parte, anywhere. 

 En adelante, forward, in the future. 

 Eti lo sucesivo, afterward, hereafter. 

 El aiio que viene, next year. 

 En derechura, by the most direct 



way. 



En resiimen, in short, brie/ly. 

 Hasta no mas, to the highest pitch. 

 Hasta que, as far as. 

 Hoy dia or hoy en dia, now-a-days. 

 Hoy per hoy, this very day. 

 La semaua pasaila, last week. 

 La sernaua que viene, neit week. 

 Mucho tiempo ha, long time ago. 

 Monaua a la noche, to-morrow 



night. 



No bien, no sooner, scarcely. 

 Xo mucho ha, not long since, a 



short time ago. 

 Por atras, behind. 

 Poco ha, of late, lately, 

 Poco a poco, by degrees. 

 Por el tauto, oji that ground, for 



the reason. 



Por entonces, at that time. 

 Por supuesto, of course. 

 Por puntos, from one moment to 



another. 



Por salto, on a sudden. 

 Por lo largo, along. 

 Por razon, consequently. 

 Por fin, finally. 

 Por instantes, incessantly. 

 Por poco, but little, nearly. 

 Por aca 6 por alia, here or there. 

 Por eucima, superficially. 

 Pocas veces, seldom. 

 Kara vez, not often, seldom. 

 Eato ha, short time ago. 

 Sin suelo, without bounds, to excess. 

 Sobre seguro, confidently, securely. 

 Sin ton y sill son, without rhyme or 



reason. 



Sobre manera, excessively. 

 Sobre si, separately, selfishly. 

 Tal vez, perhaps, once at a time. 

 Una vez, once. 

 Ya ha rato, some time ago. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. II. 



BY J. E. THOROLD KOGEKS, M.A. 



PURPOSES OF THE SCIENCE FEUDAL SYSTEM EFFECTS OF 



DEBASED CURRENCY INFLUENCE OF COMMERCE ON 



NATIONAL WEALTH. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY proposes to determine the causes which 

 assist or retard the progress of a people in material wealth. 

 No community stands still, for an exact equilibrium in social 

 philosophy a condition in which society is neither progressive 

 nor retrograde is a mere mathematical point, theoretically con- 

 ceivable, but practically incommensurable. The problem which 

 Political Economy attempts to solve, as was said in the previous 

 lesson, is, how the greatest number of persons can live with 

 the least labour in the greatest possible affluence ; and, if such 

 a result can be arrived at, how persons and affluence may 

 increase, and labour may decrease in quantity. As a matter 

 of fact, this prosperity is always at the flow or the ebb ; indi- 

 vidual societies are going forward or backward. 



A hundred examples may be cited in illustration of the fact, 

 that communities wax and wane in wealth or prosperity. 

 Twenty-five centuries ago, the southern part of Central Asia 

 was a garden, occupied by thriving nations ; it is now a desert, 

 in which a few savage tribes live the life of nomads or banditti. 

 Twenty centuries ago, Asia Minor was full of populous and 

 wealthy cities ; it is now almost desolate. Greece was the 

 cradle of the arts of poetry, of philosophy, of political science ; 

 until recently it was the lowest state in Europe. Italy was 

 the centre of the world, the ruler of the largest and most 

 compact empire that ever was bound together by military 

 supremacy and vigorous government ; it has but recently suc- 

 ceeded in effecting political unity. Eome, Carthage, Venice, 

 Genoa have all been leading cities in the history of the world. 

 Nor has the northern ocean been without its representatives in 

 this rise and fall of material prosperity. Before the beginnings 

 of modern history, a league of trading towns on the shores of 

 the Baltic, and the Norwegian coast of the German Ocean, 

 entered into a league of amity and commerce, and were con- 

 spicuous for their wealth, under the name of the Hanse Towns. 



Once, and once only, however, has the general progress of the 

 human race been arrested and driven back. The conquest of 

 the nations exhausted Eome and her subjects. The world fell 

 back into barbarism, when the tribes who inhabited the German 

 swamps and forests, the Eussian steppes, and the great plateau 

 of Central Asia, pressing westward from their homes, overran 

 the ancient civilisation of Europe. And in every one of these 

 cases, in the numerous examples of national decline, and in this 

 solitary example of the retrogression of the whole civilised 

 world, every circumstance which has led to these phenomena 

 ia capable of easy explanation by an investigation of definite 

 economical causes. It is because other economical causes have 

 become overwhelmingly powerful, that we need not, humanly 

 speaking, fear lest hereafter civilisation will ever be overrun by 

 barbarism. Modern society has become strong, because it has 

 obeyed, imperfectly indeed, but in some particulars implicitly, 

 the laws which Political Economy has discovered and expounded. 



I stated in my first lesson that Political Economy is an induc- 

 tive science. It gathers, in logical language, its conclusions 

 from concrete cases, not from abstract principles or imaginary 

 classifications. It relies on experience, not on hypothesis. It 

 does not deal with an ideal state of things, but it analyses 

 society as it is. And in particular, it finds out what is true 

 and right, by watching the consequences of what it knows to 

 be false and wrong, because the consequences are mischievous 

 or unfair. Now I know no better instance by which I can 

 exhibit the economical progress of society than that which is 

 contained in the economical history of our own country, 

 will, therefore, attempt to trace an outline of its progress, and 

 occasionally its retrogression, from the earliest times in which 

 we can discover something of its economical condition, down to 

 the period in which we are living now. We shall, I think, find 

 no difficulty in explaining every circumstance which has charac- 

 terised its history as a community, earning its existence by 

 labour, and seeking to make progress in wealth and material 

 power, if we put the facts before the light of a few economical 

 laws. 



I will take for the period at which my account commences, 

 the close of the thirteenth century, because it is at this time 



