334 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



From, when it means since, or from the time of, and of dis- 

 tance from, is generally rendered by desde; in other cases by de; 

 as 



Desde la ninez aprendiste las 

 sagradas letras, from childhood 



thou hast Tmown the Holy Scrip- 

 tures. 



Hay cincuenta millas desde 

 Vera-Cruz a Jalapa, it is fifty miles 

 from Vera Cruz to Jalapa. 



<; Cuando ha vuelto vmd. del 

 campo ? when did you return from 

 the country 1 



In, meaning in the time of, within, and into, is rendered by 

 en ; when it means through the course of or during, by por ; and 

 when, after superlatives or other adjectives, it means of, by de ; 

 as in these examples : 



Este barrio es de los mejores de 

 la ciudad, this ward is one of the best 

 in the city. 



En el invierno, in the winter. 



Acre de g^nio, austere in disposi- 

 tion. 



En Espana, in Spain. 



Por la manana, in the morning. 



Instead of is rendered by por, and by en lugar de when it 

 means in the place of; as 



Vino 61 por su padre, He came instead of his father. 



Arquelas reiuaba en Judea en .Archelaus was reigning in Judea 

 lugar de Herodes su padre, instead of Herod his father. 



Into, when it comes after the verb enter, and when it means 

 inside of, is rendered by en ; but after all verbs of motion (to 

 enter excepted) it is rendered by d ; as 



Let us enter into this grove. 



Pour oil into the lamp. 



Let us go into the dining-room. 



Entre in os en este bosque, 



Eche vmd. aceite en la lampara, 



Vamos al comedor, 



Of is rendered by de ; as 



Tin amigo del rey, A friend of the king. 



On or upon, meaning along, is rendered by en; meaning 

 through, by por ; meaning by, it is rendered by de ; and meaning 

 in contact ivith the upper surface of anything, by sobre ; as 



i Hay peligro en el camino ? is 

 there danger on (or upon) the road ? 



El hombre no vive de solo pan, 

 man lives not on bread alone. 



Nada debe afirmarse por una 

 mera probabilidad, nothing ought to 

 be affirmed upon mere probability. 



Esta sobre la silla, it is on (or 

 upon) the choir. 



Sometimes on is rendered by d; as, a caballo, on horseback; 

 a pie, on foot; a bordo, on board. Upon, after the verbs to 

 count, rely, etc., is rendered by con ; as, conto con la amistad de 

 Diego, I rely upon the friendship of James. 



When on in English is used before the days of the week or 

 month, it is not rendered in Spanish ; thus, ella Ueg<5 alii el 

 sabado, she arrived there on Saturday. 



Out of, meaning removed from, beyond and outside of, is ren- 

 dered by fuera de ; meaning on account of, by por ; meaning 

 from, by de ; as 



Por amistad, out of friendship. 

 Bebe de un vaso, he drinks out of 

 a tumbler. 



Fuera de peligro, out of danger. 



Fuera de mis alcances, out of my 

 power. 



Tengo habas que estan fuera de 

 tierra, I have beans that are out of 

 the ground. 



Over is rendered by encima de when it means above and 

 otherwise by sobre ; as 



Encima de la ventana, over the I Lloro sobre la ciudad, he wept 

 u'indoin. I over the city. 



Through, meaning from one end or side to another or on 

 account of, is rendered by por ; when it means by reason of, by 

 le ; as 



Por el temor de la muerte esta- Viajo por Espana, he travelled 

 fon en servidumbre toda la vida, through Spain. 

 through the fear of death they were in Ella tiembla de temor, she 

 bondage all their life. trembles through fear. 



T^ll is rendered by hast a ; as 



la oficina esta abierta hasta las The office is open, till ten o'clock at 

 diez do la noche, night. 



To, when preceded by from, in such phrases as from bad to 

 worse, from time to time, is rendered by en ; when it means of, 

 by de ; and in other cases generally by d ; as 



De dia en dia, from day to day. 

 Un amigo de su patria, a friend 

 to his country. 



Towards is rendered by Jidda; as 



Aqui viene hacia nosotros la Here comes towards us the lady of 



Un tio de Juan, an uncle to John. 

 Dio el tintero a Maria, he gave 

 I the inkstand to Mary. 



eenora de la casa, 



the house. 



Under is rendered by debajo de or bajo ; as 

 Debajo del puente, Under the bridge. 



Bajo la mesa, Under the table. 



Under is rendered by so in the following phrases : 

 So capa de, under cover of. So pena de, under penalty of. 



So color de, under colour of. So pretexto de, under pretext of. 



With, when meaning of, or from, or by, is rendered by de; in 

 most other cases by con ; as 



Estamos cubiertos de polvo, we 

 are covered with dust. 



Nos morimos de frio, we are 



dying with cold. 



Juan le mato de un sablazo. 

 John killed him with a sabre-siroko. 



Con poriniso del capitan, with 

 permission of the captain. 



Within is rendered by dentro de ; as 



Lo necesitare dentro de tres dias, I shall need it within three days. 



Without, meaning destitute of, with exemption from, is ren- 

 dered by sin; and when it means outside of, or beyond, by fuera 

 de ; as 



Trateme vmd. sin ceremonia, Treat me without ceremony. 



Comprar sin dinero, To buy without money. 



Le echaron fuera de la ciudad. The;; cast him without the city. 



Sin in Spanish is regarded as a negative preposition, and is 

 therefore often followed by a negative conjunction ; as 



Sin otro fin ni motive, Without another end or (nor) 



motive. 



There are other prepositions in Spanish which, as they can be 

 rendered in most cases by the corresponding English preposition, 

 offer no difficulty to the learner. Such are - 



Para con, in respect to. 

 Ademas de, besides. 

 A pesar de, in spite of, 

 no twithstanding. 



Cerca de, near to. 

 Frente a, or en frente 



de, opposite. 

 Durante, during. 



En orden a, auifh regard 



to. 



Junto a, adjoining. 

 Por el medio clo, across. 



The preposition entre, between, when it comes before personal 

 pronouns, does not govern them in the objective case in Spanish, 

 but is followed by them in the nominative ; as, entre tu y yo 

 (and not entre ti y mi), between thee and me. 



Prepositions, as in English, are placed before the word 

 which they govern. 



Care must be taken to distinguish the use of the same word 

 in English, whether employed as a preposition, or an adverb, or 

 conjunction. Thus, in the phrases after breakfast, before dinner, 

 the words after and before are prepositions, and are to be ren- 

 dered by despues de and antes de, respectively ; v'lile in the 

 phrases after I had departed, before I had dined, the words 

 after and before are adverbs, and are to be rendered by despues 

 que and antes que. 



Segun, when used before a verb in Spanish, is not a preposi- 

 tion, but an adverb, meaning according as ; as 



Segun creo, according as I be- I Segun parecio, according as it 

 lieve. I appeared. 



HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. XL 



VOICE AND SPEECH. 



THE faculty of voice, or rather of articulate utterance, is one of 

 the great distinctive features of the human being. Though in 

 nearly all the air-breathing animals included in the division 

 Vertebrata there are arrangements more or less complex for 

 the production of vocal sounds, there is no reason to suppose, 

 as far as observation has at present gone, that any animal but 

 man is endowed with the wonderful gift of speech. Without this 

 power, how different would be the condition of the human family ! 

 Without speech, learning and civilisation could hardly have 

 existed, and life would have been robbed of its greatest charms. 

 In the lower animals, the organs of sound vary much in charac- 

 ter ; in reptiles, the apparatus is situated at the junction of the 

 windpipe with the pharynx, and is of very simple construction, 

 consisting only of a slit bounded by two contractile lips ; and 

 in consequence, the only sound these animals for the most part 

 are capable of uttering is a hissing one, which, from the great 

 size of their respiratory organs, is often prolonged for a very 

 considerable period. In birds, especially tho singing birds, the 

 vocal organs are of a much more complex character. In them, 

 as in the reptiles, there is a narrow fissure at the superior ex- 

 tremity of the windpipe ; but this, in their case, seems to be 

 only concerned in the function of respiration ; the true vocal 

 apparatus is situated at the lower extremity of the trachea, just 



