362 



THE POPULAR EDUCATOR. 



Questions in parallel sailing can be solved by the tables 

 of " Diff. of Lat. and Departure," owing to analogy in con- 

 struction of formulas (2) and (6). Consider latitude as course, 

 and distance sailed as diff. lat. in the tables ; then in the 

 margin, under distance, will be found the diff. longitude in 

 minutes. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. LVI. 



SYNTAX: CONJUNCTIONS. 



JOINING is the office of conjunctions. The joining may take 

 place between two words, between two clauses, and between two 

 propositions. Properly the conjunction and joins two things 

 this with that and is in consequence required before every 

 second noun, adjective, verb, etc. The practice of putting and 

 before only the last word of a series is of modern date. As an 

 illustration of the merely uniting functions of the conjunction, 

 take this example : 



1st Clause. 1 x 2 



" Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and tliee, and 



^~ 3 2nd Clause. 



between my herdmen and thy herdmen, for we are brethren." (Gen. 

 xiii. 8.) 



The conjunction and, No. 1, unites the pair of words, me, 

 thee ; No. 2 unites the first clause with the second ; the third 

 and unites " my herdmen" with " thy herdrnen." 



Conjunctions unite words which bear to each otlier the same 

 grammatical relation. 



This rule is commonly stated thus : Conjunctions connect the 

 like tenses of verbs and the like cases of nouns. The readiest 

 syntactical guide in the use of conjunctions is the thought. I 

 will take two instances, one of concord, the other of depend- 

 ence : 



Concord. You and I are ill. | Dependence. He beat you and me. 

 In the first proposition, we have I after and, not so much be- 

 cause you is in the nominative case, as because the statement is 

 that I am ill. This appears by analysis 



You are ill. | I am ill. 



In the second proposition, me occurs after and, because me, as 

 well as you, is dependent on beat ; as 



He beat you. | He beat me. 



which is shortened into 



He beat you and me. 



Aided by these observations, you will have no difficulty in 

 determining what form your words should assume when united 

 by conjunctions. You will, for instance, see that of these two 

 propositions the first is erroneous, and the second correct : 



1. He is wiser than me. 



2. He is wiser than I (am). 

 So -with 



a b c 



You love him better than I (me). 

 You love him better than me (I). 



These sentences are right or wrong according to the meaning 

 you intend. If you mean that a loves b better than c loves b, 

 the first is correct ; in full, the sentence would then stand : 

 You love him better than I love him ; 



but if you mean that a loves b better than a loves c, then the 

 contence is incorrect, as may appear thus : 



You love him better than you love me. 



The conjunction as carries with it the force of a relative 

 pronoun, that is to say, it introduces a second proposition to 

 whicli it serves for the subject ; as 



"But as many as received him." (John i. 12.) 

 The employment of the conjunction that, as in 

 They affirmed (that) he would not come, 



is required as indispensable by some grammatical critics with 

 an emphasis which may be somewhat undue. That the sense 

 does not require its insertion, is obvious from its nature and 

 from the sentence just given as an example. If, however, the 

 second member of the sentence is separated from the first by 

 ce-veral intervening words, that may serve as a point on which 



the mind may rest, until it takes up the clause to which it 

 refers, and for which in some sort it is a substitute ; as 



Your brother stated that, as he and your cousin were passing down 

 High Street, they saw a child fall from the roof of a house. 



CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. 



Certain conjunctions go in pairs ; that is, the precedence of 

 the one necessitates the use of the other ; for example : 



1. Though yet; as, " Though he die, yet shall ho live." (John xi. 25.) 



2. Whetlier or ; as, " Whether it be greater or less." Butler. 



3. Eitheror ; as, "The indulgence of a declamatory manner is not 

 favourable either to good composition or good delivery." Blair. 



4. Neither nor; as, " John the Baptist came neither eating bread no; 1 

 drinking wine." (Luke vii. 33.) 



5. Both and; as, "I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the 

 barbarians, both to the wise and to the unwise." (Rom. i. 14.) 



6. Such as; as, "An assembly such, as earth never saw." Coicper. 



7. Such that; as, " The difference is such that all will perceive it." 



8. As as; as, " And he went out from his presence a leper as white 

 as snow." (2 Kings v. 27.) 



9. -4s so ; as, " .4s two are to four, so are six to twelve." 



10. So as; as, (1) "How can you descend to a thing so base as 

 falsehood ? " (2) " No lamb was e'er so mild as he." Lunghorne. 

 (3) " We ought to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to 

 the ear." Blair. 



11. So that ; as, " No man was so poor that he could not make resti- 

 tuti on. " Milman. 



1J. .Not only or not merely but, but also, but even ; as, " In heroic 

 times smuggling and piracy were deemed not only not infamous, but 

 even absolutely honourable." Maunder's Grammar. " These are ques- 

 tions not of prudence merely, but of morals also." Dymond's Essays. 



INTERJECTIONS. 



Instead of speaking of a person, you may speak to a person, 

 or call upon a person ; you may employ the style of direct 

 address. For such kinds of address our nouns in English have 

 no specific form ; but exclamations or interjections supply the 

 place of such forms, and mark the existence of a direct address 

 or appeal. That address or appeal may have various meanings, 

 and even various shades of meaning, corresponding with the 

 state of the feelings at the moment ; as 



"Ah Dennis! Gildonah/ what ill- starr'd rage 



Divides a friendship long confirm'd by age ! " Popa. 

 " Alas ! poor Yorick." Shafcespearc. 



Sometimes interjections, for instance, ! oh ! ah ! lo ! merely 

 call attention, or indicate an appeal or an address ; in such 

 cases they are followed by the case of the subject, or that of the 

 object; as 



Subject : " O thou unknown, almighty Cause ! " Burns. 

 Object: "Lo! the lilies of the field, 



How their leaves instruction yield ! " Heber. 

 When deep feeling is intended, the case of the object is used 

 with a pronoun of the first person ; as 



Ah me ! oh unhappy mt; ! woe is me ! 



that is, ah ! what will become of me ! oh, what has befallen 

 unhappy me ! woe is to me ! or, woe is on me ! 



" Judas said, Hail, master ! and kissed him." (Matt. xxvi. 49.) 

 " Hail, Macbeth ! " Shakespeare. 



That is, Hail be to thee, O master ! Hail (health) be to Macbeth! 

 In order to distinguish the subject and the object, when used 

 with exclamations or interjections, from the subject and the 

 object when employed in the third person singular, the former 

 may be called the subject of direct address, and the latter the 

 object of direct address. 



The interjection woe to ! requires the case of tb object ; the 

 object, in reality, is governed by the preposition to : 



" Woe to them that join house to house ! " (Isa. v. 8.) 

 The exclamation Oh for ! signifies, Oh that I possessed! as 



" Oh for that warning voice ! " Cowper. 

 but alas for ! simply expresses grief towards ; as 

 " Alas for Sicily ! "Hilton. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



A simple sentence is a sentence which has one subject and 

 one affirmation or predicate; and a crmpound sentence is a 

 sentence that has more than one subject and more than one 

 predicate. The component parts of a compound sentence are 

 called its members. These members may bo two or more ; they 

 may also each form a separate sentence : 



