POPULAR SCIENTIFIC LECTURES. 



anil divided ; exclusive of the libraries, 

 larger and moro varied appliances for study 

 are required. "Wo can scarcely foresee what 

 fresh demands and what new problems wo 

 may have to meet in the more immediate 

 future. 



On the other hand, the German universi- 

 ties have conquered a position of honor not 

 confined to their fatherland ; the eyes of the 

 civilized world are upon them. Scholars 

 speaking the most different languages crowd 

 toward them, even from the farthest parts of 

 the earth. Such a position would be easily 

 lost by a false step, but would be difficult to 

 regain. 



Under these circumstances it is our duty to 

 get a clear understanding of the reason 'for 

 the previous prosperity of our universities ; 

 we must try to find what is the feature in 

 their arrangements which we must seek to 

 retain as a precious jewel, and where, on the 

 contrary, we may give way when changes are 

 required. I consider myself fey no means 

 entitled to give a final opinion OR this mat- 

 ter. The point of view of any single individ- 

 ual is restricted ; representatives of other 

 sciences will be able to contribute some- 

 thing. But I think that ft final result can 

 only be arrived at when each one becomes 

 clear as to the state of things as seen from 

 his point of view. 



The European universities of the Middle 

 Ago had their origin as free private unions 

 of their students, who came together under 

 the influence of celebrated teachers, and 

 themselves arranged their own affairs. In 

 recognition of the public advantage of these 

 unions they soon obtained from the state 

 privileges; and honorable rights, especially 

 that of an independent jurisdiction, and the 

 right of granting academic degrees. The 

 students of that time were mostly men of 

 mature years, who frequented the university 

 more immediately for their own instruction, 

 and without any direct practical object ; but 

 younger men soon began to be sent, who, for 

 the most part, were placed under the superin- 

 tendence of the older members. The sepa- 

 rate universities split again into closer eco- 

 nomic unions, under the name of " Nations," 

 "Bursaries," "Colleges," whose older mem- 

 bers, the seniors, governed the common affairs 

 of each such union, and also met together for 

 regulating the common affairs of the uni- 

 versity. In the courtyard of the University 

 cf Bologna are still to be seen the coats-of- 

 firms, and lists of members and seniors, of 

 many such nations in ancient times. Tho 

 older graduated members were regarded as 

 permanent life members of such unions, and 

 they retained the right of voting, as is still 

 the case in the College of Doctors in the Uni- 

 versity of Vienna, and in the Colleges of Ox- 

 ford and of Cambridge, or was until recently. 



Such a free confederation of independent 

 men, in which teachers as well as taught 

 were brought together by no other interest 

 than that of love of science ; SOIMO by the 

 desire of discovering the treasure of mental 

 culturo which antiotiity had bequeathed 



others endeavoring to kindle in a new gen- 

 eration the ideal enthusiasm which had ani- 

 mated their lives. Such was tho origin of 

 universities, based, in the conception, and in 

 the plan of their organization, upon the most 

 perfect freedom. But we must not think 

 here of freedom of teaching in the modern 

 sense. The majority was usually very in- 

 tolerant of divergent opinions. Not unfre- 

 quently the adherents of the minority were 

 compelled to quit the university in a body. 

 This was not restricted to those cases in 

 which the Church intermeddled, and whero 

 political or metaphysical propositions were 

 in question. Even the medical faculties 

 that of Paris, the most celebrated of all at 

 the head allowed no divergence from that 

 which they regarded as the teaching of Hip- 

 pocrates. Any one who used the medicines 

 of the Arabians or who believed in the circu- 

 lation of the blood was expelled. 



The change, in the universities to their 

 present constitution, was caused mainly by 

 the fact that the state granted to them 

 material help, but required, on the other 

 hand, the right of co-operating in their man- 

 agement. The course of this development 

 was different in different European countries, 

 partly owing to divergent political conditions 

 and partly to that of national character. 



Until lately it might have been said that 

 the least change has taken place in the old 

 English universities, Oxford and Cambridge. 

 Their great endowments, the political feeling 

 of the English for the retention of existing 

 rights, had excluded almost all change, even 

 in directions in which such change was 

 urgently required. Until of late both uni- 

 versities had in great measure retained their 

 character as schools for the clergy, formerly 

 of the Roman and now of the Anglican 

 Church, whose instruction laymen might also 

 share in so far as it could serve the general 

 education of the mind ; they were subjected 

 to such ft control and mode of life as was 

 foimerly considered to be good for young 

 priests. They lived, as they still live, in 

 colleges, Tinder the superintendence of a 

 number of older graduate members (Fellows) 

 of the college ; in other respocts in the style 

 and habits of the well-to-do classes in Eng- 

 land. 



The range and the method of tho instruc- 

 tign is a more highly developed gyinuasial 

 instruction ; though in its limitation to what 

 is afterward required in the examination, and 

 in (ho minute study of the contents of pre- 

 S'-nbed text-books, it is more like the Rope- 

 titoria win. 'i are here and there held in our 

 universities. Tho acquirements of the stu- 

 dents are controlled by searching examina- 

 tions for academical degrees, in which very 

 special knowledge is required, though only 

 for limited regions. By such examinations 

 the academical degrees are acquired. 



While the English universities give but 

 little for the endowment of tho positions of 

 approved scientific teachers, and do not log- 

 ically apply even that little for this object, 

 tUe^ have aiothe** arranfjeiaeni which is ap- 



