POPULAR SOISXTOIC Lr.CTUr.^3. 





grunt, influence on '. 'v; ; rningompnt, seleo- 

 tion, and modo of illumination of the objects 

 represented. Tho distinctness of vhat it* 

 represented is indeed of subordinate impw 

 tanco when considered in reference to tho 

 ideal aims of art ; it must not however be 

 depreciated, for it is tho first condition by 

 which the observer attains an intelligibility 

 of expression, which impresses itself without 

 fatigue on the observer. 



This direct intelligibility is again the pre- 

 liminary condition for an uuciistnvbed and 

 vivid action of the picture on the feelings 

 and mood of the observer. 



The subordinate methods of expressing 

 depth which have beo'i referred to, depend 

 in the first place oa perspective. Nearer 

 objects partially conceal more distant ones, 

 but can never themselves be concealed by the 

 latter. If therefore the painter skilfully 

 groups liis objects, so that the feature in 

 question conies into play, this gives at once a 

 very certain gradation of far and near. This 

 mutual concealment may even preponderate 

 over the binocular perception of depth, if 

 stereoscopic pictures are intentionally pro- 

 duced in which each counteracts the other. 

 Moreover, in bodies of regular or of known 

 f rui, the forms of perspective projection 

 arc; for tho most part characteristic for tho 

 I. -pth of tho object. If we look at house;*, 

 or other results of man';) nrtisti ; nativity, wo 

 know Kt tho outset that the forms nro for the 

 ; iost part plane surf.icos at right angles to 

 ouch otuer, with occasional circular or even 

 spheroidal surfaces. And in fact, when wo 

 know so much, a correct perspective drawing 

 is sufficient to produce tho whole shape of 

 the body. This in ulso tho case with the 

 figures of men and animals which are famil- 

 iar to us, and whoso forms moreover show 

 two symmetrical halves. Tho best perspec- 

 tive drawing is, however, of but little avail in 

 the case of irregular shapes, rough blocks of 

 rock arid ice, masses of foliage, arid the like- ; 

 that this is so, is best seen in photographs, 

 where the perspective and shading may be 

 absolutely correct, and yet tho total impres- 

 sion i:-i indistinct anil confused. 



When human habitations aressen in a pic- 

 ture, they represent to the observer the di- 

 rection of tho horizontal surfaces nt tho 

 placo at which they stand ; ivnd in compari- 

 Hou therewith tho inclination of the; ground, 

 v/1-ricii without them would often b* ctiSicult 

 to represent. 



Tho apparent magnitude which objects, 

 v.'hosi.', actual magnitude is known, present 

 in different parts of tho picture must also be 

 taken into account. Men and animals, as 

 well as familiar trees, are useful to the paint- 

 er i:i this respect. In the more distant cen- 

 tre of tho landscape they appear smaller than 

 in the foreground, and thus their apparent 

 magnitude furnishes a measure of the dis- 

 tance nt which they are placed. 



Shadows, and more especially double ones, 

 ore of great importance. You all know how 

 much more distinct is the impression winch 

 & well-shaded drawing givea as distinguished 



from an outl'.no ; fho shading i.ilicneoono c.l 

 the most difficult, b;:t at tho samo time KIOSJ| 

 effective, elements in tho productions oC th 

 draughtsman and painter. It i.s his task t >| 

 imitate tho fine gradation and transitions of I 

 light and shad.? on rounded surfaces, which! 

 nro his chief jiunin.j of expressing their mod- 1 

 o.liing, with all their fino changes of curva- 

 ture ; ho must take into account the exten- 

 sion or restriction of tho sources of light, 

 and tho mutual reflection of the surfaces ori 

 oach other. While, the modifications of tho 

 lighting on the surface of bodies themselves! 

 is often dubious for instance, an intaglio of 

 a medal may, with a particular illumination, 

 produce the impression of reliefs which aro 

 only illuminated from the other side -doublo 

 shadows, on tho contrary, are undoubted in- 

 dications that the body which throws tho 

 shadow is nearer the source of light than 

 that which receives the shadow. This rulo 

 is so completely without exception, that even 

 in stereoscopic views a falsely placed double 

 shadow may destroy or confuse the entire 

 illusion. 



The various kinds of illumination r.ro not 

 all equally favorable for obtaining the full 

 effect of shadows. When the observer look'i 

 at the objects in ihe name direction as that in 

 which light fails upon them, he sees only 

 their illuminated sides und nothing of the 

 shadow ; the whole relief which the shadows 

 could give then disappears. If the object is 

 between the source of light and the observer 

 he only sees the shadows. Hence we iiee.l 

 lateral illumination for a picturesque shad- 

 ing ; and over surfaces which, like those of 

 plan 3 or hilly land, only present slightly 

 moving figures, we require light which is al- 

 most in the direction of the surface itself, 

 for only such a one gives shadows. This is 

 one of the reasons which makes illumination 

 by the rising or tho setting sun so eifective. 

 Tho forms of the landscape become more 

 distinct. To this must also be added tho 

 influence of color, and of aerial light, which 

 we shall subsequently discuss 



Direct illumination from the sun, or from 

 a name, makes tho shadows sharply denned 

 and hard. Illumination from a very wide 

 luminous surface?, such as ft cloudy sky, 

 makes them confused, or destroys them al- 

 together. Between these twu extremes there 

 are transitions ; illumination by a portion of 

 the sky, denned by a window, or by trees, 

 etc., allows the shadows to bo more or less 

 prominent according to the nature of the 

 object. You must have seen of what impor- 

 tance this is to photographers, who have to 

 modify their light by all manner of screens 

 and curtains in order to obtain well-mod- 

 elled portraits. 



Of more importance for the representation 

 of d pch than the elements hitherto enu- 

 merated and which nro more or loss of 

 local and accidental significance, is what is 

 called arrial. perspective. By this we under- 

 stand the optical action of tho light, which 

 the illuminated masses of air, between the 

 observer and distant objects, give. This; 



