JEWS. 



243 



the destruction of the old, and the formation of new 

 slates, by the irruption of the barbarians, not only 

 preserved their existence, but obtained them influ- 

 ence and authority. They made themselves masters 

 of the commerce of the old world, and, as money- 

 lenders and brokers, were often of great importance, 

 to princes and nobles ; and, during the dreadful per- 

 secutions which they underwent from the cruelty of 

 the Christians, even after the seventh century, they 

 still continued prosperous in those countries, even 

 during the periods in which they suffered most. 

 Their own usury, and the rapacity of the Christians, 

 rather than religious hatred, were the true causes of 

 these persecutions. The most dreadful crimes, and 

 all public calamities, were attributed to them by the 

 Christians, as a pretext for ridding themselves of 

 troublesome creditors, or for obtaining possession of 

 their treasures, either by their execution or banish- 

 ment ; but their wealth and adroitness had rendered 

 them so important, that they were always able, event- 

 ually, to secure the protection of spiritual and tem- 

 poral rulers. They lived more happily among the 

 Mohammedans, although they were distinguished by 

 dishonourable badges, and oppressed by heavy taxes; 

 and, during the Moorish supremacy in Spain, their 

 prosperity was increasing, and their learning flourish- 

 ing. See Rabbinical Language and Literature. 



In the cities of France, Germany, and Italy, after 

 the eleventh century, particular streets and en- 

 closed places, were assigned to them, in consequence 

 of which, in the persecutions during the crusades, 

 thousands often fell victims at once to the popular 

 fury. Decrees of councils, and the ordinances of secu- 

 lar rulers, repeatedly declared the Jews incapable of 

 enjoying the civil rights of Christians, and of holding 

 public offices. They could no where be domiciliated, 

 nor attached to any guild or corporation ; but, in con- 

 sideration of the payment of certain sums of money, 

 they enjoyed the immediate protection of the sover- 

 eign, who, in his financial embarrassments, obliged 

 them to make repeated contributions. In Germany 

 they paid a considerable tax, in return for which they 

 were protected, as the money agents (Kammerknechte) 

 of the holy Roman empire, as they are denominated 

 in an imperial letter of protection. Their conversion 

 to Christianity could not be effected by such treat- 

 ment. In Spain and Portugal, indeed, at the end of 

 the fifteenth century, they yielded to force, and suf- 

 fered themselves to be baptized en masse; but, as 

 soon as the storm was over, they were seen again in 

 the synagogues. The superstition of the fifteenth 

 century, whose worship of saints and relics must have 

 appeared to them idolatry, might well persuade them 

 that their own pure monotheism was more rational 

 and scriptural. From this circumstance, and from 

 their pride in the antiquity of their nation and constitu- 

 tion, we may infer how many of those who publicly 

 professed to be converts to Christianity, and were 

 called, in Portugal, new Christians, and who might 

 attain to a noble rank, and even to high church dig- 

 nities, were still, in private, Jews, continuing scru- 

 pulously to observe the Mosaic ceremonies.* The 

 Portuguese Jews, on account of their connexion with 

 these secret adherents to Judaism, have been parti- 

 cularly respectable, and are in possession of large 

 landed estates. The Dutch Jews, chiefly fugitives 



* It is well known that the literature of Spain is much 

 indebted to the Jews. A list of authors of Hebrew origin 

 gives 561 on philology, twenty on astrology, sixty-seven 

 commentators, or expositors, eighty-four on philosophy, 

 fifty two in grammar, thirty-six on medicine, eighteen his 

 torians, fifty-two jurists, eighteen mathematicians, fifty, 

 seven poets, eight on rhetoric, sixty. eight on the Talmud, 

 nineteen theologians, and seventy-three translators. Jour- 

 nal of the Literary Convention, held at New York, Appen- 

 dix, No. I. CNew York, 1831). 



from Portugal, were once distinguished for their im- 

 mense wealth. The Polish (who, since 1264, have 

 been in possession .of important privileges, and have 

 been a great hinderance to the industry of the cities) 

 and the Russian (now the most numerous) have pos- 

 sessed themselves of nearly all the commerce ; also 

 of the inns, the beer and brandy shops, and, in some 

 places, of the post-offices. The German Jews, on 

 account of the increase of the commercial cities and 

 corporations, have kept only the gleanings of the 

 retail trade. In all places, the Jews have a peculiar 

 character. Their confinement to employments which 

 depend principally on ingenuity and cunning, Ims had 

 a debasing effect on the great body of them. In 

 modern times, however, distinguished scholars, phi- 

 osophers, artists, physicians and merchants have been 

 bund among them ; as Spinoza, Moses Mendelssohn, 

 David Friedlander, Moses Kuh, &c. 



The philosophical spirit of the last half of tbe 

 eighteenth century first began to acknowledge the 

 rights of the Jews. Plans for the improvement of 

 their political and moral condition were discussed, 

 and afterwards, by the benevolence of some govern- 

 ments, carried into execution, but with little, and 

 often with no success. The only consequence of the 

 jreat sanhedrim, to which the emperor Napoleon 

 summoned 100 rich Jews (1806), was an imperial 

 decree, soon after, declaring those Jews only to 

 3e French citizens who were occupied in some useful 

 mployment ; but they were still drawn as conscripts. 

 The German princes were more desirous to give the 

 rights of citizenship to the Jews. The disabilities 

 to which they had hitherto been subject, were re- 

 moved ; civil privileges were granted to them ; the 

 Lsraelitish consistory was established in Cassel, under 

 the Westphalian government, for the improvement 

 of their worship and their schools. Still more impor- 

 tant are the improvements in the Jewish schools in 

 Austria, where there are academies for rabbins at 

 Prague and Lemberg ; in Bavaria, where there is a 

 similar institution, at Furth ; and in the Prussian 

 states, where they acquired all civil rights in 1811. 

 There is no distinction whatever between Jews and 

 Christians by the constitution of the United States, but, 

 in some of the states, certain officers, as the gover- 

 nor, counsellors, representatives, are required to pro- 

 fess, under oath, their belief in the Christian religion. 

 In England, the Jew bill, passed in 1753, enabling 

 Jews to prefer bills of naturalization in parliament, 

 without receiving the sacrament, was repealed the 

 next year. In May, 1830, an attempt was made, in 

 parliament, to remove the civil disabilities affecting 

 the Jews, but was opposed by the ministry, and the 

 question was lost. In France, the chamber of de- 

 puties voted, in 1830, that the Jewish ministers of 

 worship should be paid from the public chest, like 

 the Christian. In Germany, a number of Jews have 

 lately abandoned the system of the rabbins, and per- 

 formed divine worship in the German language, in a 

 manner approaching that of the Christians. Hamburg 

 is the seat of this society. In general, the Jews in 

 Europe, without renouncing their religion, have, more 

 than formerly, shown a disposition to adopt Christian 

 refinement, while their brethren among the Moham- 

 medans and heathens share the barbarism of their 

 masters. By the ukase of March, 1817, important 

 privileges are conferred on the Jews in Russia who 

 embrace Christianity. Land is given to them gra- 

 tuitously, where they may settle under the name of 

 The Society of Israelitish Christians. They are im- 

 mediately subject to a court at Petersburg, appointed 

 by the emperor, are exempt from military service, 

 from having soldiers quartered on them, from at! 

 taxes for twenty years, and may engage in any trade 

 without being subject to the restrictions of the craft. 

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