LEAGUE. 



413 



packed together. This membrane is pierced with 

 the pores usually known by the name of stomata. 

 The doubts that have been entertained of the exist- 

 ence of perforations in these stomata, M. Brongniart 

 thinks he has removed, and that it is certain that, in 

 the centre of each stoma, is an opening by which 

 the outer air communicates with the parenchyma. 

 The parenchyma is evidently the seat of respiration; 

 for it is the part that changes colour in exercising 

 tin's function, which becomes green by the absorption 

 of the carbon of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, 

 and which is discoloured again, in darkness, by the 

 combination of the carbon of its juices with the oxy- 

 gen of the air. This parenchyma differs entirely 

 from that of other organs, by the numerous irregular 

 cavities that it contains, which communicate with 

 eacli other and the outer air by means of the open- 

 ings of the stomata. It is into these cavities, in the 

 cavernous parenchyma of aerial leaves, that the 

 atmospheric air penetrates, when it is absorbed by 

 the surface of the utricles of the parenchyma, that 

 are distended with the fluids which seem to nourish 

 tlie plant. According to M. Brongniart, aquatic 

 leaves, if submerged, differ in being completely des- 

 titute of epidermis. It is not alone stomata that they 

 want, as has long been known, but the epidermis 

 also. There are none of the cavities that abound in 

 the parenchyma of aerial leaves, but, on the contrary, 

 the cellules of the tissue are compactly fastened 

 together, without any interstice, and the air, dis- 

 solved in the water, can only act on their outer sur- 

 face. For this reason, the proportion borne by this 

 surface to the whole mass of the leaf, is unusually 

 great. The leaves, from want of epidermis, dry up 

 quickly when exposed to the air, and can only exist 

 in water, or a very humid atmosphere. Hence the 

 author concludes that the epidermis is destined to 

 protect aerial leaves against too rapid evaporation, 

 and the stomata, or pores, of this epidermis become 

 necessary to maintain a communication between the 

 atmosphere and the parenchyma. 



LEAGUE; a measure of length, containing more 

 or fewer geometrical paces, according to the differ- 

 ent usages and customs of countries. A sea league 

 contains 3000 geometrical paces, or three English 

 miles. The French league sometimes contains the 

 same measure, and in some parts of France, it con- 

 sists of 3500 paces. The mean or common league 

 consists of 2400 paces, and the little league of 2000. 

 Twenty common Spanish leagues make a degree, or 

 69} English statute miles. The German le:igue 

 (meile) contains four English geographical miles. 

 The Persian league is also equal to four such miles, 

 pretty near to what Herodotus calls the length of 

 the Persian parasang, which contains thirty stadia, 

 eight of which make a mile. See Mile. 



LEAGUE. Those political connexions which 

 have been called alliances, since the French language 

 has become the fashionable language of Europe, 

 were, denoted, during the prevalence of Spanish and 

 Italian influence, from 1500 to 1650, by the term 

 league (from the Spanish word liga). To some al- 

 liances this term is more distinctly applied. Among 

 these are the league of Cambrai, formed, 'in 1508, 

 between Louis XII., king of France, the German 

 emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand of Spain, for the 

 purpose of humbling the republic of Venice, and 

 which was joined, in 1509, by pope Julius II. This 

 league was dissolved in 1510, as many similar ones 

 liave been, in consequence of mutual distrust, and 

 was succeeded by the liga santa, or holy league, 

 between the pope, Maximilian, Ferdinand, and 

 Venice. The object of this was to compel Louis 

 XII., whose allies had now become his enemies, to 

 renounce his conquests in Italy; which object was 



gained. This was the first example of a holy league, 

 which name was derived from the participation of 

 the pope. Thirty years afterwards, a holy league 

 was formed in Germany. For when the principal 

 Protestant princes in Germany united, in 1536, to 

 form tiie union of Smalkalden, in order to protect 

 their common faith, and withstand the emperor 

 Charles V., the Catholic princes assembled at Nur- 

 emberg, in 1538, to take measures for the support 

 of their own faith, and to oppose the designs of the 

 Protestant princes ; and, as their league had the 

 protection of the Catholic church for its object, they 

 termed it the holy league. A fourth league, also, 

 called the Catholic, was formed by Henry, duke of 

 Guise, in 1576, against Henry III. of France. Its 

 ostensible object was the support of the Catholic 

 religion ; but the duke of Guise had further views 

 of his own. As Henry III. was without male heirs, 

 the throne, at his death, would pass to the Protest- 

 ant prince Henry of Navarre ; to exclude whom, 

 and to obtain the throne for himself, were the real 

 objects of the duke of Guise. His great popularity 

 seemed to render the accomplishment of his design 

 easy. The example given by Paris in his favour was 

 followed by all the provinces. The league was 

 sanctioned by the pope and the king of Spain. In 



1588, the duke of Guise was murdered at Blois, with 

 his brother Louis, the cardinal, at the king's instiga- 

 tion. The league then declared the throne vacant, 

 and named the third brother, Charles, duke of May- 

 enne, governor-general of the kingdom. Henry III. 

 now sought relief in the camp of his former enemy, 

 Henry of Navarre. He was there assassinated in 



1589. The war was then pursued by the league 

 against Henry of Navarre, till it was ended, in 1594, 

 by his uniting himself to the Catholic church ; and 

 the next year the league was dissolved. 



We find a fifth league, in Germany, in the seven- 

 teenth century, also termed Catholic. The peace 

 of 1555 had not sufficiently restrained the Pro- 

 testants, and had taken too much from the Ca- 

 tholics. Both parties regarded each other with 

 distrust. The one was accused of encroachments ; 

 the other, of unreasonable pretensions. As Henry 

 IV. of France was ready to support the Protes- 

 tant princes in any manner, for the purpose of 

 humbling the house of Austria, these princes, 

 excited by the injuries inflicted upon the Protes- 

 tant town of Donauwerth, assembled in 1608, to 

 form a union for their protection. The Catholic 

 princes now took the same steps as after the union 

 of Smalkalden : their association (1610) was also 

 hastened by the disputes respecting the succession 

 of Juliers-Cleves. The principal German princes 

 laid claim to the possessions of John William, duke 

 of Juliers-Cleves-Berg, &c., who had died in 1609, 

 without heirs. Henry IV. supported the Protestant 

 princes : a league was therefore formed, by the 

 Catholic princes, at Wurtzburg, in 1610, at the head 

 of which was Maximilian, duke of Bavaria. ^The 

 unexpected death of Henry IV. prevented their 

 coming at once to action ; but the union and the 

 league kept up a vigilant opposition to each other 

 till the breaking out of the thirty years' war. The 

 head of the union, Frederic, elector-palatine, 

 became king of Bohemia ; and then the two par- 

 ties took the field. An accommodation was at 

 last effected at Ulm, on the 3d July, 1620, by 

 means of the united French, Spanish, Austrian, and 

 the Bavarian influence, in which the union gave up 

 the Bohemian cause, and, after the imperial arms had 

 become victorious in Bohemia, the union was wholly 

 dissolved in 1621. The designs of the Catholics 

 we're so well supported by the duke of Bavaria, and 

 his general Tilly, at the head of the troops of the 



