PANNONIA PANTHEON. 



405 



burg), to the advantage of the younger line of Hol- 

 stein-Gottorp ; the peace with the Porte in 1774 ; 

 the mediation of Russia at the peace of Teschen ; 

 and, finally, the armed neutrality, were effected 

 principally through Ins representations. All the in- 

 structions of the military commanders and foreign 

 ministers, and the whole correspondence with foreign 

 courts were drawn up by him. He was the main 

 support of the Prussian system in the Russian cabinet ; 

 but his influence over Catharine had much diminished 

 towards the close of his ministry, while that of his 

 adversaries had increased. (See Catharine II.) The 

 principles on which he conducted public affairs were, 

 that a state must always maintain its own dignity, 

 without the interference of others, and that it is un- 

 becoming a powerful state to have recourse to dissi- 

 mulation and artifice, but that the most entire frank- 

 ness should characterize all the measures of the minis- 

 try. His firmness was not to be shaken by threats 

 or promises. He always advised what he thought 

 was for the best, and, in such a case, he opposed 

 even his own mistress. He died in 1783. 



PANNONIA, in ancient history ; the country in- 

 habited by the Pannonians, a Thracian tribe, and 

 situated between the Illyrians and Celts, on the 

 northern side of the Eastern Alps. The emperor 

 Augustus first succeeded in conquering the Illyrians 

 and Dalmatians ; he penetrated into the mountains 

 of the Pannonians, and subdued them (A. D. 10). 

 A dangerous conspiracy of this people against the 

 Romans was suppressed by Tiberius. They appear 

 to have afterwards settled, with the consent of the 

 Romans, on the Danube. It was probably under the 

 emperor Claudius that their country was first organized 

 into a Roman province. Pannonia comprehends the 

 eastern part of Austria and Stiria, all that part of 

 Hungary (still called Pannonia) on the south of the 

 Danube, a part of Carniola and Croatia, all Sclavonia, 

 and a part of Bosnia, along the Save. It was pro- 

 bably Adrian who divided it into Pannonia superior 

 or occidentalis (afterwards prima) and Pannonia inte- 

 rior, or orientalis (afterwards secunda). After the 

 Marcomannic war, Pannonia was repeatedly ravaged 

 by barbarians. It suffered still more at the time of 

 the great migration of the nations. In the fourth 

 century, the Vandals conquered a part of the country, 

 and afterwards the Goths. It was entirely conquered 

 by the Huns under Attila. After the death of this 

 conqueror, in 453, the kingdom of the Huns sunk 

 back within its eastern limits on the Pontus. The 

 Sannatians, from whom are descended the Sclavoni- 

 ans of the present day, next settled on the mountains 

 of Pannonia. Pannonia was also occupied, with the 

 consent of the emperor of the East, by the Gepidae 

 and Ostrogoths. When the latter migrated to Italy, 

 the Lombards entered Pannonia, and subdued the 

 Gepidas, but, removing to Italy in 568, left the coun- 

 try to the Avars (see Avars), who were conquered 

 by Charlemagne, and forced to embrace Christianity. 

 Pannonia was finally conquered by the Hungarians, 

 about the year 900. See Hungary. 



PANORAMA (from rav, all, the whole, and c'ga^a, 

 view) ; a perspective view of a town or natural scene, 

 projected on the plane of the horizon, invented by 

 Robert Barker, an Englishman, in 1787. The pan- 

 orama may be considered as the triumph of perspec- 

 tive. The artist, from a high point, must take an 

 accurate plan of the whole surrounding country, as 

 far as the eye can reach. Truth of representation 

 and closeness of imitation are the great objects to be 

 aimed at in panoramas, and the delusion must be 

 promoted by the manner in which the picture is put 

 up and lighted. It is circularly disposed round the 

 walls of a rotunda, so that the spectator who is s-ta- 

 tioned in the centre, and prevented from approaching 



too near the painting, by a railing, finds himself, as it 

 were, on the spot from which the view was taken. 

 The light is admitted from above, without dazzling 

 the spectator, from whom the aperture by which it 

 enters is also concealed ; and, as he sees no end to 

 the picture, in which all the parts are delineated in 

 their true proportion to the whole, and with the na- 

 tural colouring, the illusion is complete. Robert 

 Fulton introduced the panorama into France, and 

 panoramic views of a great number of cities and 

 natural scenes have been exhibited, within the last 

 thirty years, in Europe and America. The stereorama 

 (from ffrtfia;, solid), or panstereorama, is a miniature 

 representation, in relief, of towns and other objects, 

 constructed of cork, pasteboard, or other light and 

 flexible substances. The diorama was invented in 

 France, and differs from the panorama chiefly in being 

 flat instead of circular, and therefore presenting only 

 a particular view, like any other picture, in front of 

 you, and not all around. The manner in which the 

 light is introduced is essentially the same as in the 

 case of the panorama. 



PANTALONE; a mask of the Italian comedy. 

 (See Mask.) From him the pantaloons have their 

 name, because he is dressed in wide, long garments 

 of this sort. 



PANTALOONS. See Pantalone. 



PANTHEISM (from **v, the body of all exist- 

 ing things, and eios, God). When man begins to 

 think of the cause of things, he either separates the 

 great original cause entirely from other existences 

 (which is monotheism (q. v.), if he believe in one 

 simple cause; or polytheism, if he believe in several, 

 or, at least, in a multiplied emanation of causes from 

 the great original cause), or he believes the great 

 cause to be within the universe, that is, he considers 

 the universe itself to be God, which is pantheism. 

 This belief is generally the offspring of materialism 

 (q. v.) consistently carried out. Some persons, how- 

 ever, have also applied the word pantheism to that 

 doctrine of theology according to which God's Spirit 

 not only pervades every thing, but every thing lives 

 through him and in him, and there is nothing without 

 him (Acts of the Apostles, xvii. 27 et seq. ; Ephes. 

 iv. 6). The character of this doctrine depends upon 

 what is understood by God, and in what relation we 

 consider existing things to stand to him, which must 

 essentially determine our moral and religious notions. 

 The chief modern supporters of pantheism, as first 

 defined, are generally considered to be Bruno and 

 Spinoza; hence Spinozism is often, yet wrongly, used 

 for pantheism. Most of the systems of the Greek 

 philosophers have this basis. The religions of hea- 

 then antiquity are pantheistic in so far as they take 

 for granted a fate, or a forming power of nature, 

 which determines every thing. 



PANTHEON (from the Greek ira.?, every, and 

 Saw, deity) signified, in antiquity, a temple sacred to 

 all the principal deities in common. The most 

 famous is the pantheon at Rome, which Agrippa, 

 the favourite of Augustus, built on the campus Mar- 

 tius. Pope Boniface IV. consecrated it, in 607, to 

 the Virgin Mary and all the martyrs ; hence it is 

 still called St Maria ad martyres. It is still more com- 

 monly called the rotunda, on account of its form. It is 

 one of the finest edifices in Rome. Its stone roof is 

 vaulted, and through a large hole in the centre of 

 the roof the interior is lighted. The well-preserved 

 portico seems to be of a later period than the temple 

 itself; it consists of sixteen columns of Oriental 

 granite, each of which is fifteen feet in circumference. 

 The interior was formerly adorned with the most 

 beautiful statues of the various deities, of which the 

 best were carried, by Constantine, to Constantinople. 

 At present, there are in the eight niches, eight fine 



