ROME (HISTORY OF). 



produced, in the year '201, the c.-t.ihlishment of 

 tribunes of the people, (<ri&IM/>fo&U,) who were 

 to proteet their rights and liberties against the 

 eiuToachments of the nobility. A protracted coij- 

 ro>e between tlie patricians and the guardian 

 of the plebeians, the principal points of which were 

 as follows: 1. The tribunes, in their accusation 

 of Coriolanus, claimed the right of bringing indi- 

 vidual patricians before the tribunal of the people, 

 and thus gave rise to the comitia tributa, so fatal 

 to the nobility. 2. They demanded that the lands 

 t iken from the neighbouring states should be dis- 

 tributed among the poorer people, and thus gave rise 

 to the contests relative to . the agrarian laws, 

 (leges ayrari*.') 3. The tribune Publius Volero 

 extended the prerogatives of the comitia tributa, 

 and gave them the choice of the tribunes. 4. The 

 tribune Caius Terentius Arsa endeavoured to cir- 

 cumscribe the consular power, by the formation of 

 a code of laws. (See Twelve Tables and Appius 

 ( 'IniiJius.') Although the new laws defined the 

 legal relations of all citizens, yet the government 

 of the state remained in the hands of the aristo- 

 cracy which was kept totally distinct from the 

 plebeians by the prohibition of intermarriage. This 

 prohibition gave rise to new contests which ended 

 in its abolition. The plebeians likewise obtained, 

 eighty years after, a participation in the honours 

 of the consulship. During these disputes the of- 

 fice of censor was established. Meanwhile, Rome 

 was constantly engaged in petty wars and quarrels 

 with the neighbouring states. That the popula- 

 tion might not diminish, freedmen, and even pri- 

 soners of war, were admitted into the number of 

 citizens. Rome became altogether a military state ; 

 pay was introduced into the Roman armies, which 

 rendered it necessary to impose higher taxes. The 

 city was, at this time, reduced to the brink of des- 

 truction, by the Senonian Gauls, who captured and 

 reduced it to ashes, (A. U. 365.) Camillus, (q. v.), 

 however, the saviour of Rome, restored it from its 

 ruins. The first plebeian consul was elected in 

 the year 388, and the plebeians soon participated in 

 all offices in the dictatorship, in 398 ; in the cen- 

 sorship, in 403; in the praetorship, in 417; and in 

 the priesthood, in 454 (300 B. C.). A complete 

 political equality of patricians and plebeians existed 

 at the end of this period ; internal contests ceased, 

 and, in the same proportion, the power of the state 

 abroad increased, and the splendid period of con- 

 quests began. During this period, the manners of 

 the Romans were characterized by the ancient 

 simplicity and rudeness ; science and the fine arts 

 were as yet unknown to them; but useful arts, 

 commerce (a treaty of commerce was concluded 

 with the Carthaginians in 409), navigation, and 

 mechanical arts, were cultivated. Agriculture was 

 still the chief source of national wealth. 



The first years of the second period were yet 

 marked by contests between the plebeians and pa- 

 tricians. Rome was also visited by the plague, 

 which gave rise to the introduction of theatrical 

 shows from Etruria. The Romans now gained 

 several victories over the Gauls in which Titus 

 Manlius Torquatus (see Manilas) rendered him- 

 self conspicuous. Two laws settled the rate of 

 interest in favour of debtors. From an alliance 

 which had been concluded a few years before with 

 the Samnitcs (q. v.), a formidable war between 

 the two nations broke out in 411, which lasted 

 till 4fi4, opened the way for the subjugation of all 

 Italy, and laid the foundation of the future great- 



ness of Rome. This war was the heroic age of 

 the Romans; it taught them tactics; it settled 

 their relations with their neighbours, the Latins 

 and Etrurians, the former being completely re- 

 duced, and the latter repeatedly humbled; and 

 brought the Romans sometimes into friendly, and 

 sometimes into hostile contact with the distant 

 Lucanians, Apulians, and Umbrians. In this 

 period the principles of their policy towards con 

 quered nations were also developed. After the 

 subjugation of the Samnites, the Romans attemp- 

 ted to secure their authority in Lower Italy, in 

 consequence of which the Tarentines called to their 

 aid (A. U. 473") Pyrrhus king of Epirus, who, not- 

 withstanding his knowledge of the Macedonian art 

 of war, was finally worsted, and obliged (479) to 

 evacuate Italy. Tarentum fell into the hands of 

 the Romans in 482, and soon after all Lower Italy. 

 The fame of Rome extended even to Egypt, the 

 king of which, in 481, sent an embassy to seek for 

 the friendship of the Romans. Authority was 

 maintained among the conquered people chiefly by 

 the establishment of colonies of Roman citizens, 

 who served as garrisons in those cities in which 

 they were placed. Each colony had its own con- 

 stitution, similar to that of Rome. This colonial 

 system gradually embraced all Italy. For con- 

 venience of communication, great military roads 

 were laid out in different directions. Some of the 

 Italian cities and people enjoyed all the rights of 

 Roman citizens (iitvnicipia) ; others had the rights 

 of colonies (jus coloniarum) ; the others were either 

 allies (soeu) or subjects (dedititii.') The latter 

 were governed by prefects sent from Rome. Rome 

 had already a navy, and the office of duumviri 

 navales was instituted for the general management 

 of naval affairs. The judiciary was improved by 

 the appointment of the pretors, (q. v.,) and the 

 police by that of curule adiles and the triumviri 

 capitales. Learning and the arts now began to 

 appear. Fabius Pictor introduced the art of 

 painting into Rome; Lucius Papirius Cursor 

 brought (461) the first dial; and Spurius Carvilius 

 caused a statue of Jupiter to be. cast. With the 

 worship of ^Eculapius the science of medicine came 

 to Rome ; the works of Appius and the temple of 

 Concord by Camillus, prove the progress of archi- 

 tecture. But by the side of noble specimens of 

 morality, temperance, integrity, and patriotism, 

 individual examples of luxury, effeminacy, and de- 

 generacy already began to appear. 



In the third period, Rome made the first ad- 

 vances to the dominion of the world. She main- 

 tained, in three wars, a desperate struggle with 

 Carthage, and destroyed her rival. (See Carthage, 

 Hannibal, Fabius, Scipio, Masinissa, &c.) The 

 first war with Carthage was made for the posses- 

 sion of Sicily, and the dominion of the sea; it lasted 

 twenty-three years, (from 489 to 511 of the build- 

 ing of the city,) and ended with the expulsion of the 

 Carthaginians from Sicily. Rome, made arrogant 

 by success, then deprived them of the island of 

 Sardinia, in the time of peace (517). She next 

 humbled the piratical Ulyrians, on the Adriatic 

 sea, and thus appeared as the friend of Greece. 

 Corcyra, Apollonia, and other Greek cities, put 

 themselves under the protection of Rome; the 

 Achteans, ^Etolians and Athenians emulated each 

 other in expressions of gratitude. When Carthage 

 endeavoured to indemnify herself in Spain for her 

 former losses, and was compelled by the Romans 

 to promise not to pass the Iberus, (Ebro,) a bloody 



