ROME (HISTORY OF). 



the tribunitial power. By this victory of the de- 

 mocratic party, a kind of oligarchy was established, 

 and powerful individuals obtained the direction of 

 affairs. The conspiracy of Catiline (see Catiline') 

 nad for its object the overthrow of the existing 

 powers, and the elevation of a party from the 

 dregs of the people. Cicero defeated it, and re- 

 stored internal tranquillity. Nevertheless, the 

 state continued to decline ; luxury, introduced by 

 the immense wealth of Asia, had destroyed all 

 the remains of ancient virtue. Selfishness and 

 ambition were the ruling passions of the great. 

 Pompey, who had now returned from Asia, found 

 in the severe Cato a superior, and attached him- 

 self to the popular party, in order to prosecute 

 his designs with their assistance. Caesar's return 

 from Lusitania (694) gave affairs a different turn. 

 He formed with Pompey and Crassus the first 

 triumvirate as it was called, and succeeded (695) 

 to the consulship, which prepared the way for his 

 assumption of the dictatorship. He obtained the 

 province of Gaul for five years, and thus gained 

 an opportunity of making conquests and forming 

 an army. The chiefs of the senate, Cicero and 

 Cato, were banished by the tribune Clodius before 

 his departure ; but the triumvirate caused Cicero to 

 be recalled by the tribune Milo, without being able 

 to destroy the power of Clodius. Caesar accom- 

 plished, during his administration in Gaul, the 

 subjugation of that country (696 704). The 

 contest which arose during his absence between 

 himself, Pompey, and Crassus, was settled in 698 

 by the treaty of Lucca, by which Caesar obtained 

 his province for five years more, and Pompey and 

 Crassus the consulate for the succeeding year, 

 after which the former was to have Spain and 

 Africa, and the latter Syria, as their respective 

 provinces. In spite of Cato's opposition, this 

 plan was effected; but when Crassus fell, on his 

 expedition against the Parthians, and Pompey, in- 

 stead of departing to his province, remained at 

 the head of the republic as sole consul, with al- 

 most dictatorial power, a civil war was unavoid- 

 able. (See Caesar, and Pompey.') Instead of 

 obeying the decree of the senate, Caesar passed 

 the Rubicon, and compelled Pompey to fly from 

 Rome. The civil war broke out, and was ended in 

 706 at Pharsalia. Caesar now became dictator, 

 with the most extensive power. His first object 

 was the entire reduction of the party of Pompey, 

 and the restoration of order to Italy. He was 

 assassinated in 710; but his adversaries could not 

 preserve the republic. In 711, a new triumvirate 

 was formed between Octavius, Antony and Lepi- 

 dus; the object of which was the annihilation of 

 the republican party. For the manner in which 

 they pursued this object, by proscriptions and vio- 

 lence, and for their subsequent divisions, until the 

 battle of Actium rendered Octavius master of the 

 Roman empire, see the articles Antony, and Au- 

 gustus. Rome now ceased to be a republic. The 

 principal changes which the Roman constitution 

 underwent during this period, have already been 

 related. Bribery and private interest governed 

 the assemblies of the people; interest and ambi- 

 tion actuated the public officers. The equestrian 

 order now gained great power and immense riches. 

 Marius extended the military system, but discip- 

 line was destroyed. The armies fought for their 

 generals rather than for the state. They obeyed 

 whoever paid them. But literature made great 

 H'o^ress. To this period belong the poets M. 



Pacuvius, C. Lucilius, Plautus, Terence, Lucre- 

 tius and Catullus ; the historians Calpurnius Piso, 

 Porcius Cato, Rutilius Rufus, Claudius Quadri- 

 garius, and particularly Caesar, Sallust, Cornelius 

 Nepos, Hirtius Pansa, &c. ; Cicero, the orator and 

 philosopher, and Terentius Varro, the learned 

 grammarian, who likewise wrote upon agriculture. 

 At the close of this period began the golden age 

 of Roman literature and art. The Greeks were 

 imitated with taste and success. Not only the 

 Roman youths went to Greece to complete their 

 education, but learned Grecians flocked to Rome, 

 and were employed in education and instruction. 

 The language reached its. highest perfection, and 

 the theatre exhibited its masterpieces. Of the 

 philosophical sects of Greece, the schools of Epi- 

 curus and Zeno met with the greatest success. 

 Grecian artists elevated the standard of the arts, 

 and Rome was filled with splendid buildings and 

 the master works of sculpture. In the time of 

 Cassar and Pompey, the Grecian artists Arcesi- 

 laus, Pasiteles, Zopyrus, Criton, Nicolaus Strongy- 

 lion, and the great lapidary Dioscorides, resided 

 at Rome. But the corruption of morals increased 

 with the increase of luxury; the greatest part of 

 the people, especially of the nobility, was sunk 

 in debaucheries and vices of every description. 

 Laws were of little avail; agriculture and the 

 mechanical arts were left entirely to slaves, who 

 were treated in the most cruel manner. The 

 common people lived, in spite of their poverty, in 

 idleness, and were ready to devote themselves to 

 those who would give them largesses. Every 

 thing was to be obtained by gold. 



III. We are next to consider Rome with a 

 monarchical government, under the Caesars, from 

 the foundation to the division of the empire, from 

 the year of the city 727 to 1148 (or 395 A. D.). 

 This period forms four divisions : 



1. Octavius returned to Rome as a conqueror 

 in 7'25, and for forty-three years remained at the 

 head of the government. He was the first sove- 

 reign in Rome without adopting this title. Satis- 

 fied with the surname of Augustus, which was 

 given him in 727, he ruled with mildness, retain- 

 ing the republican forms of government. He 

 united in his own person the offices of consul, 

 tribune, imperator and proconsul in all the pro- 

 vinces, and finally that of " magister morum" and 

 pontifex maximus. To avoid the appearance of 

 usurpation, he caused the supreme power to be 

 confirmed to him from time to time. The senate 

 acted the part of a council of state. The repub- 

 lican magistracies were retained, but their power 

 was lost : on the other hand, the prefects of the 

 city and of provisions became the most important 

 officers, because upon them depended the public 

 tranquillity A city militia (cohortes urbana;') and 

 a body-guard (cohortes prcctoriana;') were formed. 

 The governors of the provinces were paid and 

 limited in their power. Improvements were in- 

 troduced in the financial system. The distinction 

 between the public treasury and private purse of 

 the emperor, naturally existed at first; but after- 

 wards both were united. The boundaries of the 

 empire were extended, particularly by the addi- 

 tion of Egypt (724), Pannonia (719), Ma>sia 

 (725), Rhaetia, Vindelicia and Noricum (739), 

 and by the complete subjugation of Northern 

 Spain and Western Gaul (729). On the other 

 hand, the Romans were unsuccessful against the 

 Germans. The successor of Augustus was his 



