STARLING STATISTICS. 



379 



wool, and the clear liquid is concentrated, till it has obliged to grant_ it anew. Some 

 acquired a sirupy consistence. After this, the basin had civil and criminal jurisdiction 

 is removed from the fire, in order, that, by cooling, 

 its sulphate of lime may be precipitated. The pure 

 sirup is now decanted, and evaporated to the proper 

 dryness. It is found, also, that sugar may be ob- 

 tained from starch without the use of sulphuric 

 acid. It is obtained by leaving the starch, first 

 brought to the pulpy state, to itself, either with or 

 without the contact of the air, or by mixing it with 

 dried gluten. At the same time, however, other 

 products are obtained; viz. 1. a gum like that from 

 roasted starch; 2. amydine, a body whose properties 

 are intermediate between those of starch and gum ; 

 and, 3. an insoluble substance, like ligneous matter. 

 Twelve parts of boiling water and one of starch, 

 fermented by dry gluten, yielded, 



Without 

 act 



cf ail 

 47-4 

 23-0 

 8-9 

 10-3 

 a trace 

 . 4-0 



With 

 contact 

 Of air. 

 49-7 



9-7 



5'2 

 9.2 

 3 

 3'8 



Sugar, 

 Gum, 



Amydine, . 

 Amylaceous lignin, 

 Ligiiin with charcoal, 

 Undecomposed starch, 



Potato starch differs considerably from that of 

 wheat. It is more friable, is composed of much 

 larger sized grains, forms a jelly with water at a 

 lower temperature, and is less readily decomposed 

 by spontaneous fermentation. Starch is composed 

 of carbon 43-48, oxygen 49-45, hydrogen 7'06. 

 Doctor Prout considers starch as sugar partly or- 

 ganized ; for it has the same essential composition, 

 but differs in containing minute portions of other 

 matter, which, we may presume, prevent its consti- 

 tuent particles from arranging themselves in the 

 crystalline form, and thus cause it to assume totally 

 different sensible properties. When starch is 

 roasted at a moderate heat in an oven, it is converted 

 into a species of gum, employed by calico printers ; 

 potato starch answers best for this purpose. Salop 

 is composed of a little gum, very little starch, and 

 much of a kind of gum called Bassorine. Sago is 

 an uniform substance, soluble in cold water, more 

 so in hot, precipitated blue by iodine, and differing 

 from common starch only in the first mentioned 

 property. Tapioca seems to be identical with sago. 

 Arrow root is nearly pure starch, agreeing in all re- 

 spects with the starch of potato, which may be con- 

 verted by heat into something similar to sago and 

 tapioca. 



STARLING (sturnus). The colour of the com- 

 mon European starling is blackish, with blue, pur- 

 plish, or cupreous reflections, and each feather is 

 marked at the extremity with a whitish speck. 

 The beak is long, straight, entire, somewhat flat- 

 tened and obtuse at the extremity ; the tail shorter 

 than in our blackbirds. It is found in almost all 

 parts of Europe, and, except in the breeding season, 

 lives in numerous flocks, retiring in the evening to 

 marshes, to pass the night among the reeds. The 

 flight of these birds is peculiar : they form a sort of 

 vortex while advancing. During the day time, 

 they disperse throughout the fields, and seem par- 

 ticularly fond of the company of cattle. They are 

 often kept in cages, and learn to whistle some tunes, 

 Wid even to pronounce words and sentences. 



STAROSTS, in Poland; those noblemen who 

 were reckoned among the dignitaries of the land 

 (dii/nitarii terraritni), and who received a castle or 

 landed estate from the crown domains (mensa regia). 

 The starosty was granted only for the life of the 

 occupant, on whose death, however, the king was 



Some of the starosts 

 over a certain 



district (grod") ; others (tentuarii") merely enjoyed 

 the revenues of the starosty. 



STATE (respublica, civitas, societas civilis"); a 

 body politic; an association of men for political 

 ends, the object of which is well expressed in the 

 term common-wealth (i. e. common good). Expe- 

 rience, as well as reason, shows that the isolated 

 individual can attain but very imperfectly the ends 

 of his being, and instinct early led men to form 

 unions, for promoting the good of each by the 

 power of all. Such a union is a state, and may be 

 called the natural condition of man, because essen- 

 tial to the full development of his faculties. Se- 

 parated from society, he remains a brute. So true 

 is the ancient definition of man as being a political 

 animal, though it may have been taken, when first 

 used, in too narrow a sense. (See the beginning 

 of the article Slavery.) The right of men to form 

 states being thus obvious from their nature, the 

 next questions which arise are, What is the his- 

 torical origin of states? and what is the best state, 

 or best government? History shows, that states 

 have been formed in a great variety of ways, by the 

 violence of one or many, by artifice, by contract, 

 &c. (See the articles Political Institutions, Sove- 

 reignty, Estate, Legitimacy; also Communities, Ci- 

 ties, Corporations, Land, property in.) As to the 

 other question, that state is the best, which is best 

 adapted to promote the general good; so that the 

 organization of such a state may, and must, differ 

 according to circumstances. This fact is over- 

 looked by those who treat the organization of a 

 state merely as a matter of abstract speculation, 

 and, on the other hand, is often used as a pretext 

 for retaining abuses diametrically opposed to the 

 true objects of political society. It should never 

 be forgotten, that the form of government, important 

 as it is, is merely a means of obtaining the great 

 objects of the state; and the first objects to be pro- 

 vided for are security and good order, to which all 

 forms must be made to yield. These terms include 

 much more than the mere protection of individuals 

 against violence on the part of each other a sense 

 to which none but despotic governments would 

 limit the words. 



STATE ADVOCATE. See Advocate of the 

 Crown. 



STATEN ISLAND is situated south of the 

 city of New York, the centre of it being distant 

 from the city eleven miles. It constitutes the county 

 of Richmond, and is the most southern land be- 

 longing to New York. Its length is fourteen miles, 

 and its greatest breadth eight miles. Its southern 

 extremity is in lat. 40 29' N. ; its western extre- 

 mity is 18' west longitude from New York; popu- 

 lation in 1830, 7084. 



STATES-GENERAL. See Netherlands. 

 . STATES OF THE CHURCH. See Church, 

 States of the. 



STATICS. See Dynamics, and Mechanics. 

 STATISTICS. The past, in all its extension, 

 belongs to history; the present to geography and 

 statistics. Schlb'zer said with much truth, " His- 

 tory is statistics in a state of progression ; statistics 

 is history at a stand." The subject of statistics is 

 the investigation and exposition of the actual con- 

 dition of states and nations, in regard to their in- 

 ternal organisation and foreign relations. The 

 description of the face of the country belongs to 

 geography. Statistics is often considered in too 



