BOTANY BOTH. 



641 



must be connected with the anatomy of plants. Their 

 constituent parts, their various changes, and the 

 different combinations of their liquid and solid parts, 

 are to be examined. From those, at last, we ascend 

 to the laws of vegetable life, which are, in general, 

 the same as those of animal life. Animal physiology 

 must, therefore, be intimately united with the phy- 

 siology of plants. Connected with the latter are 

 two branches of knowledge, which the botanist can- 

 not well dispense with, since they offer the most 

 important conclusions on the economy of nature, on 

 the history of the earth, and on the application of 

 science to the arts. These are, first, the science of 

 deformities and diseases of plants, which can be made 

 certain only by correct physiological views, and which 

 is of great value in gardening, agriculture, and the 

 cultivation of woods ; and, second, a knowledge of 

 the mode in which plants have been spread over the 

 earth. If we study the forms of vegetation which 

 have come to us from distant ages, in the flotz 

 formations, this observation affords the most interest- 

 ing discoveries in relation to the history of our earth. 

 If we trace the laws by which vegetation seems to 

 have been distributed, we extend our knowledge of 

 the general action of nature, and arrive at conclusions 

 which may be of great practical utility. The work 

 of Sprengel on the structure and nature of plants, is, 

 perhaps, the most complete. Separate parts of the 

 anatomy of plants have been treated of by Link, Tre- 

 viranus, and Moldenhawer ; vegetable chemistry, by 

 Senebier, Saussure, and Schrader. 



History of the Science. Of the two general divi- 

 sions of botany, the physiological or philosophical is 

 the elder. Before the Greek philosophers attempted 

 to distinguish classes and species of plants, they 

 examined the laws of vegetable life, the difference 

 of plants from animals, and, as far as it could be 

 done with the naked eye, their structure. Theo- 

 phrastus of Eresus is the creator of philosophical 

 botany, which he treated on a great and original 

 plan. From the writings of the Alexandrians, and 

 from original observations, Dioscorides of Anazarba, 

 in the first century of the Christian era, compiled a 

 work, which contains imperfect descriptions of about 

 1200 plants, the medical qualities of which were more 

 attended to by the author than the description of their 

 characteristics or their philosophical classification. 

 This work continued, for fifteen centuries, the only 

 source of botanical knowledge. The Persian and 

 Arabian physicians added about 200 plants, which 

 were unknown to the Greeks, and, consequently, the 

 number of known plants, at the time of the revival of 

 letters, was about 1400. Germany has the merit of 

 having founded historical botany. The obvious im- 

 perfections of Dioscorides, when the plants in Ger- 

 many came to be investigated, and the extravagances 

 into which those persons fell, who attempted to apply 

 his descriptions to German plants, impelled Hierony- 

 mus of Brunswick, Otho Braunfelsius, Leon. Fuch- 

 sius, Hieron. Tragus,'and Conrad Gesner, to examine 

 the vegetable productions of their country, indepen- 

 dently of Dioscorides, and to represent them in 

 wood-cuts. Gesner first started the idea that the 

 parts of fructification were the most essential, and 

 that plants must be classified with reference to them. 

 They were followed, in the 16th century, by the 

 Italians, Peter Matthiolus, Andr. Caesalpinus, Prosp. 

 Alpinus and Fab. Columna ; the Belgians, Dodo- 

 iiajus, Clusius, and Lobelius. Among the botanists 

 of this period, who extended the science by their la- 

 bours in collecting specimens, are the French Dale- 

 champ, the English Gerard, the German Joach. 

 Camerarius, Tabernaemontamis, and John Bauhin, 

 whose brother Gaspard not only increased the num. 

 bcr of known plants by numerous discoveries, but 



endeavoured to reform the nomenclature, which had 

 become much confused by the multiplication of names 

 of the same plant. These are the fathers of botany, 

 whose standard works still reward examination. By 

 the exertions of these men, the number of known 

 plants, at the beginning of the 17th century, amount- 

 ed to 5500. The necessity of classification increased 

 with the quantity of materials. Lobelius and John 

 Bauhin adopted the natural division of trees, grasses, 

 &c., without reference to any general principle. 

 Andreas Caesalpinus, by the advice of Conrad Gesner, 

 fixed upon the fruit and the seed as the foundation of 

 a classification, which is still retained by many of his 

 followers, who are called fructists. In the 17th cen- 

 tury, new methods were introduced by Robert Mori- 

 son and John Ray ; the latter of whom attended to 

 the structure of the corolla and its parts, while 

 Rivinus considered only the regularity or irregularity 

 of its shape, and Tournefort its resemblance to other 

 objects. The number of known plants was increased 

 by Morison, Plukenet, Barrelier, Boccone, van 

 Rheede, Petiver, and Plumier. In the 17th century, 

 the foundation of botanical anatomy was laid by Grew 

 and Malpighi; botanical chemistry was founded by 

 Homberg, Dodart, and Mariotte ; and the difference 

 of sex was discovered by Grew, Morland, and Rud. 

 Jak. Camerarius. This discovery Michel! attempted 

 to extend even to the lower degrees of organization, 

 moss, lichens, and sponges. To such predecessors, 

 and to the great collectors of herbariums, Rumphius, 

 Parkinson, Sloane, Flacourt, Sommelyn, Buxbaum, 

 Ammann, and Feuillee, the immortal Linnaeus was 

 indebted, in part, for the idea on which his system 

 was founded, and for his great stores of botanical 

 knowledge. When the first edition of his Specie* 

 Plantarum was published, he was acquainted with 

 7300 species ; in the second edition, with 8800. If 

 we consider that a moderate herbarium now contains 

 from 1 1,000 to 1 2,000 species, we must be astonished 

 at the increase in the number of known plants in 

 sixty years. The two sexes of Linnaeus were after- 

 wards extended, by Dillenius, Schmidel, and Hedwig, 

 to the imperfect vegetables. This system was op- 

 posed by Adanson, Alston, and Haller ; it was ex- 

 tended still farther by Schreber, Scopoli, Crantz, and 

 Jacquin. In the 18th century, numerous discoveries 

 in the vegetable world were made by John Burmann, 

 J. G. Gmelin, Pallas, Forskal, Forster, Hasselquist, 

 Browne, Jacquin, Aublet, Sommerson, Stahl, Swartz, 

 Aiton. Vegetable physiology was enlarged and en- 

 riched with new discoveries oy Bonnet, Du Hamel, 

 Hill, Koelreuter, and Sennebier, and thus botany 

 approached its present degree of improvement (Sec 

 Sprengel's History of Botany, 2 vols.,. Leipsic, 1818.) 

 For a terminology of the science, and an outline of the 

 Linnaean system, the reader is referred to the an- 

 nexed chart, drawn out for this work by Dr Rattray 

 of Glasgow. 



BOTANY BAY. See New South Wales. 



BOTH, John and Andrew, two Flemish painters, 

 were born at Utrecht, about the year 1610. They 

 were the sons of a glass painter, who instructed 

 them in the rudiments of drawing. They afterwards 

 made further progress in the school of Abraham 

 Bloemaert, and went, at an early age, together to 

 Italy. John, attracted by the works of Claude Lor- 

 raine, chose him for his model ; Andrew preferred 

 the painting of the human figure, and imitated the 

 style of Bamboccio. But, although their inclinations 

 led them in different directions, their mutual friend- 

 ship often united their talents in the same works. 

 Thus Andrew painted the figures in the landscapes 

 of his brother ; and their labours harmonized so well, 

 that their pictures could not be suspected of coming 

 from different hands. The ease and fine colourings 



