C2BSAR. 



791 



governed the conquered lands with policy and kind- 

 ness. Pompey, on the other hand, promoted C.'s 

 enemies to the consulship, and persuaded the senate 

 to pass a decree, by which C. was to leave his army, 

 and resign his government of the province. He de- 

 clared himself ready to obey, if Pompey would do the 

 same. Hereupon the senate ordered that C. should 

 resign his offices and command within a certain time, 

 or be proclaimed an enemy to the state, and appoint- 

 ed Pompey general of the army of "the republic. 

 Upon this, C. urged his soldiers to defend the honour 

 of their leader, passed the Rubicon (49 B. C.), and 

 made himself master of Italy without striking a 

 blow, as Pompey, destitute of troops to meet him, had 

 left the city with the consuls, senators, and magis- 

 trates. C. then levied an army with the treasures of 

 the state, and hastened into Spain, which he reduced 

 to submission without coming to a pitched tettle with 

 Pompey's generals. He next conquered Marseilles, 

 and returned to Rome, where he was appointed dic- 

 tator by the pretor, M. ^Emiliits Lepidus. At the 

 same time, he was chosen consul for the following 

 year by the people. 



In the mean while, Pompey had collected an army 

 in the east, and his rival hastened to Epirus with five 

 legions by land. But when the vessels which were 

 intended to transport the rest of his troops had been 

 captured by Pompey's fleet, C. proposed an accom- 

 modation, which, however, was refused. Meanwhile 

 C. received the expected re-enforcements, and chal- 

 lenged his antagonist to battle. Pompey declined 

 coming to an engagement, but, at last, being sur- 

 rounded in his camp, was forced to take a decisive 

 step, in order to break through the enemy's line. 

 This measure was successful, and C. retreated to 

 Pharsalia, where, in a bloody but decisive engage- 

 ment (48 B. C.), he gained the victory. Pompey fled 

 to Asia, and then to Egypt, to raise a new army. As 

 his party was only weakened, but not destroyed, C. 

 hastened after him, passed.over the Hellespont, where 

 Cassius surrendered to him with his fleet, and then 

 went to Egypt. Here he received intelligence of the 

 murder of Pompey. He shed tears at the tragical end 

 of his rival, gave his body an honourable burial, and 

 loaded his followers with favours, by which many of 

 them were won to embrace his cause. Being de- 

 tained by contrary winds,. he made use of the time to 

 compose the differences between Ptolemy and Cleo- 

 patra (q. v.). In Rome, the senate and the people 

 strove eagerly to gain the favour of the victor. They 

 appointed him consul for five years, dictator for a 

 year, and tribune of- the people for life. Pharnaces, 

 king of Pontus, a son of Mithridates the Great, hav- 

 ing attempted to recover the territories of his father 

 in Asia, C. marched against him, pardoned king De- 

 jotarus, an adherent of Pompey, on his way, and 

 finished the war so speedily, that he announced his suc- 

 cess to his friends in the famous words Feni, vidi, vici. 



Returning to Rome, he granted an amnesty to all 

 the followers of Pompey, and gained by his clemency, 

 the universal love of the people. When his dictator- 

 ship had expired, he caused himself to be chosen con- 

 sul again, and, without changing the ancient forms of 

 government, ruled with almost unlimited power. In 

 Africa, however, the friends of the republic had 

 gathered under the standard of Cato and other gen- 

 erals. C. passed over with an army, and fought se- 

 veral battles with various success, till the victory at 

 Thapsus over Scipio Metellus decided the contest in 

 his favour. Cato, who was in Utica, stabbed himself, 

 and the city surrendered to the conqueror. C. then 

 made Mauritania and Numidia Roman provinces, and 

 gave orders for the rebuilding of Carthage and Cor- 

 inth, which was accomplished in a year. 



In Rome, he was received with the most striking 



marks of honour. The term of his dictatorship was 

 prolonged to ten years, the office of censor conferred 

 on him alone; his person was declared inviolable, 

 and his statue placed by that of Jupiter in the capi- 

 tol. In a speech to the people on this occasion, he 

 declared his resolution to use his power for the good 

 of 'the state; and put an end to the apprehensions, 

 which some still entertained, by the pardon of Mar- 

 cellus, one of his most open and bitter enemies. He 

 soon after celebrated the four triumphs which had 

 been decreed him over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and 

 Juba, all in one month, and among the most magni- 

 ficent ever witnessed in Rome. He now passed many 

 useful laws, and invited the learned men of foreign 

 countries to Rome. Amongst other things, he under- 

 took the reformation of the calendar (q. v.). During 

 these peaceful occupations, the sons of Pompey had 

 collected new forces in Spain, so that C. took the field 

 in person against them. Corduba was captured after 

 a most obstinate resistance; and, soon after, the 

 parties came to a general engagement at Munda. A 

 fortunate accident decided the battle in favour of C., 

 after victory had been for a whole day doubtful. In 

 seven months, Spain was conquered, and C. entered 

 Rome in triumph. He was now made perpetual dic- 

 tator, and received the title of imperator, with full 

 powers of sovereignty. 



He continued, meanwhile, to conciliate his enemies 

 by clemency, and to heap honours upon his friends. 

 The number of senators he increased from 300 to 

 900. But this degradation of the senate offended the 

 Romans, and their displeasure was increased by the 

 arrogance with which he conducted himself towards 

 that order. On one occasion, as he was sitting in the 

 rostrum, in his chair of gold, Mark Antony offered him 

 a royal diadem. He refused it, however, and his re- 

 fusal drew shouts of applause from the people. The 

 next morning, his statues were decked with diadems. 

 The tribunes of the people, who had them taken off, 

 and imprisoned the persons who had done the act, 

 were deposed from their office by C. This was the 

 occasion of an animosity, which ended in a conspiracy, 

 of which Caius Cassius was the prime mover. C., 

 having no suspicion of the danger which threatened 

 him, was forming new projects. He resolved to sub- 

 due the Parthians, and then to conquer all Scythia, 

 from the Caucasus to Germany and Gaul. C.'s friends 

 gave out, that, according to the Sibylline books, the 

 Parthians could be conquered only by a king ; and, 

 therefore, proposed that C. should retain the title of 

 dictator with regard to Italy, but should be saluted 

 with that of king in all the conquered countries. For 

 this purpose, a meeting of the senate was appointed 

 for the 15th of March ; and this was the day fixed on 

 by the conspirators for the execution of the plot. A 

 soothsayer warned C. of his danger ; and his wife, dis- 

 turbed by a frightful dretfrn, conjured him not to go 

 to the senate house. His doubts, however, were 

 overcome by Decimus Brutus, one of the conspira- 

 tors, and he proceeded to the capitol. On his way 

 thither, a billet was handed him, giving him infor- 

 mation of the conspiracy ; but, in the crowd, he put 

 it by without reading it. The conspirators had con- 

 certed, that Metellus Cimber should entreat a pardon 

 for his brother, and, if C. should refuse, he was to 

 tear the mantle from his shoulders, which was to be 

 the signal for their rushing upon him with their dag- 

 gers. All was done as they had planned. Casca's 

 dagger first pierced him in the neck. Scarcely had 

 C. turned, arid uttered the words " Accursed Cas- 

 ca, whaj; doest thou ? " when the conspirators rush, 

 ed upon him from all sides. He defended him- 

 self, however, undauntedly. But, when he de- 

 scried Brutus among the conspirators, he exclaim- 

 ed. " And thou, too, Brutus?" covered his race with 



