814 



CAMXTINS -CALIXTUS 



Songuin. They were afterwards termed mltans. 

 The caliph of Bagdad was recognised by all as the 

 spiritual sovereign of all Mussulmans : his temporal 

 authority did not extend beyond the walls of Bagdad. 

 Noureddin, Zenghi's son, being requested, by the 

 Fatimite caliph Adhed, to protect Bagdad against his 

 vizier, sent to Cairo, in succession, the Curds, Schir- 

 kueh ami Salaheddin or Saladin ; but the latter over- 

 threw the Fatimites (as schismatic tniti popes), and 

 usurped the authority of sultan of Egypt in 1170 (Heg. 

 556,) with which he united Syria, after Noureddiu's 

 death. This is the great Salaheddin (Saladin), the 

 formidable enemy of the Christians, the conqueror of 

 Jerusalem. The dynasty which commenced with 

 him \vas called, from his father Ayoub, the Ayoubites. 

 They reigned over Egypt till expelled by the Mame- 

 lukes in 1250. The Seldjook sultans of Irak were 

 overthrown, in 1194 (Heg. 590), by the Charasmi- 

 ans ; and, as those of Chorasan were extinct, there 

 remained of the Seldjook dominions nothing but the 

 empire of Iconium or Roum, in Asia Minor, from 

 which the present Turkish empire derives its origin. 

 See Ottoman Empire. 



The Charasmian sultans extended thejr conquests 

 far into Asia, until their territories were invaded by 

 the Tartars, under Zenghis Khan, in 1220 (Heg. 617). 

 They were finally totally destroyed by his son Octai. 

 Bagdad, also, the remains of the possessions of the 

 caliphs, became the easy prey of a Mongui horde, un- 

 der Holagou, in 1258 (Heg. 636), by the treachery of 

 the vizier al Kami, and a slave, Amram, under the 

 fifty-sixth caliph Motazem. The nephew of the 

 cruelly murdered Motazem fled to Egypt, where he 

 continued to be called caliph, under the protection 

 of the Mamelukes, and bequeathed the Mohammedan 

 popedam to his posterity. When the Turks conquered 

 Egypt, in 1517, the last of these nominal caliphs was 

 carried to Constantinople, and died, after returning to 

 Egypt, in 1538. The Turkish sultans subsequently 

 assumed the title of caliph, and the padishah or grand 

 signer at Constantinople retains it to the present day, 

 with the claim of spiritual supremacy over all Mussul- 

 mans, though this claim is little regarded out of his 

 own dominions, and strongly disputed by the Persians. 



CALIXTINS, or UTRAQOTSTS ; a sect of the Hussites in 

 Bohemia, who differed from the Catholics principally 

 in giving the cup in the Lord's supper to laymen. 

 (See Hussites.) Under George of Podiebrad, from 

 1450 to 1471, who declared himself for them, the C. 

 obtained the ascendency. Under Wladislaw, they 

 maintained their religious liberties, and, from the 

 time of the reformation in the 1 6th century, shared 

 the doctrines as well as the fate of the Protestants in 

 Bohemia. Their refusal to fight against their own 

 sect in the Smalkaldian war, at first drew upon them 

 severe persecutions ; but Ferdinand I., though un- 

 favourable to them in other respects, permitted them 

 to participate in the advantages of the religious peace 

 of 1556 with his other Protestant subjects, and the 

 excellent Maximilian II. granted them perfect liberty 

 in the exercise of their religious belief. Their situa- 

 tion became more critical under Rodolph II., and they 

 found it difficult to prevail on him publicly to acknow- 

 ledge the Bohemian confession, presented by them in 

 connexion with the Bohemian Brethren and the Lu- 

 therans, and to confirm the church government, under 

 which they had hitherto possessed teachers, churches, 

 and schools of their own, and a separate consistory at 

 Prague. When Matthias made many encroachments 

 on the privileges thus granted, the united Protestants, 

 under the count of Thurn, in 1617, undertook to de- 

 fend themselves. This finally kindled the thirty years' 

 war. After a short triumph under Frederic of the 

 Palatinate, whom they had chosen king, they were 

 defeated, -in 1620, near Prague, and the Protestant 



cause completely overthrown. Ferdinand II. caused 

 many C., Lutherans, and C'ulvinists to be executed as 

 rebels, and drove others into banishment ; and Fer- 

 dinand HI. did not extend the benefits of the peace 

 of Westphalia to the Protestants in Bohemia. His 

 successors were not more favourably disposed towards 

 the Protestants ; and the edict of toleration of Joseph 

 II., 1782, first restored to the Protestants in Bohemia 

 their religious liberty, of which they had been de- 

 prived during 162 years, and which is enjoyed to the 

 present day by the Calvinists and Lutherans, among 

 whom the remains of the old C. have been lost. 

 CALIXTCS ; the name of several popes. 



1. The first was a Roman bishop from' 217 to 224, 

 when he suffered martyrdom. 



2. Guido, son of count William of Burgundy, arch 

 bishop of Vienna, and papal legate in France, was 

 elected, in 1119, in the monastery of Clugny, succes- 

 sor of the expelled pope Gelasius II., who had been 

 driven from Italy by the emperor Henry V., and had 

 died in this monastery. He received the tiara at 

 Vienna. In the same year, he held councils at Tou- 

 louse and at Rheims, the latter of which was intended 

 to settle the protracted dispute respecting the right of 

 investiture. As the emperor Henry V. would not 

 confirm an agreement which he had already made on 

 this subject, C. repeated anew the excommunication 

 which he had pronounced against him as legate, at 

 the council of Vienna, in 1112. He excommunicated, 

 also, the anti pope Gregory VIII., and renewed for- 

 mer decrees respecting simony, lay investiture, and 

 the marriage of priests. Successful in his contest 

 with the emperor on the subject of investiture by 

 means of his alliance with the rebels in Germany, in 

 particular with the Saxons, he made his entrance into 

 Italy in 1120, and, with great pomp, into Rome it- 

 self; took Gregory VIII. prisoner, in 1121, by the 

 aid of the Normans, and treated him shamefully. He 

 availed himself of the troubles of the emperor to force 

 him, in 1122, to agree to the concordat of Worms. 

 (See Investiture and Concordat). He died in 1124. 



C. III. chosen in 1168, in Rome, as anti-pope to 

 Paschal III., and confirmed by the emperor Frederic 

 I., in 1178, was obliged to submit to pope Alexander 

 III. As he was not counted among the legal popes, 

 a subsequent pope was called C. III. This was a 

 Spanish nobleman, Alphonso Borgia, counsellor of 

 Alphonso, king of Arragon and the Sicilies. He was 

 made pope in 1455. He was at this time far ad- 

 vanced in life, but equalled in policy and presumption 

 the most enterprising rulers of the church. In order 

 to appease the displeasure of the princes and nations, 

 occasioned by the proceedings of the councils of Con- 

 stance and Basil, he instigated them to a crusade 

 against the Turks, and supported Scanderbeg, for this 

 purpose, with money and ships. His intention was 

 counteracted in Germany by the discontent of the 

 states of the empire with the concordat of Vienna, and 

 in France by the appeals of the universities of Paris 

 and Toulouse against the tithe for the Turkish war. 

 King Alphonso, moreover, was indignant at the re- 

 fusal of the pope to acknowledge his natural son Fer- 

 dinand as king of Naples. The Romans, also, were 

 displeased at the favours which he conferred on his 

 worthless nephews. After his death, in 1458, a trea- 

 sure of 115,000 ducats was found, destined for the 

 Turkish war. 



CALIXTUS (properly Callesin), George, the most able 

 and enlightened theologian of the Lutheran church 

 in the 17th century, was born in 15S6, at Meelby, in 

 Holstein, and educated at Flensborg and Helmstadt. 

 In 1607, in the latter university, he turned his thoughts 

 to theology ; in 1609, visited the universities of the 

 south of Germany, in 1612, those of Holland, Bri- 

 tain, and France, where his intercourse with the dif- 



