COPAL COPENHAGEN. 



443 



years, there have been societies iu London, and else- 

 where, for the purpose of encouraging the formation 

 of working communities among die labouring 

 classes. " Wages," say the co-operatives, " have 

 been and are continually diminishing. The inde- 

 pendent day-labourer has almost ceased to exist ; 

 the country labourer can seldom live without parish 

 aid : the mechanic begins to find himself in the same 

 situation. Machinery, which multiplies the products, 

 has diminished the demand for woikmen, and, in 

 consequence, their wages. The tvhole secret of the 

 remedy lies in this, that the labourers do not work 

 for themselves, but for the capitalists : if they could 

 work for themselves, they would get the whole pro- 

 duce of their labour, ot which they now get only an 

 eighth, or, at most, a fourth. To do this, they must 

 liave capital, which must be obtained by union and 

 laving. Societies may be formed, each member of 

 which pays a small periodical subscription. Instead 

 tf putting this out in savings-banks, or investing it 

 in different securities, which yield a small interest, 

 because the capital is employed by others, who must 

 have their profits from it, let the workmen employ 

 themselves on this capital, and thus obtain the whole 

 produce of it themselves. They may purchase goods 

 by wholesale, and sell them at the usual prices to 

 the members. Thus the profits on the articles sold 

 will go to increase their own capital, instead of 

 going into others' hands. As the capital increases, 

 the society will be able to find work for the members, 

 tlie whole produce of which will become common 

 property, instead of enriching other employers. 

 After a while, all the members may be thus em- 

 ployed, and they will soon become able to purchase 

 land, cultivate it, establish manufactories, provide for 

 all their wants, food, clothing, &c. ; and thus 

 receive all the produce of the labour of the whole." 

 This reasoning is not mere speculation ; it has actu- 

 ally been carried into practice. " There are now," 

 says the Quarterly Review (Nov., 1829), " upwards 

 of seventy co-operative societies in England, and 

 r.h'ey are spreading so rapidly, that, by the time this 

 number of our Review is published, there will be 

 nearly 100." But the increase was greater than 

 was anticipated ; since the Sunday Atlas of Dec. 6, 

 1829, gives the number at nearly 150. The benefits 

 which the co-operators promise themselves, are, 1. 

 relief from all fear of poverty, the sick, aged, widows 

 and orphans being provided for by the society ; 2. 

 the supply of the comforts of life without that in- 

 cessant labour which the low rate of wages now 

 requires ; 3. leisure and means for the improvement 

 of their moral and intellectual condition. It will be 

 seen that these are not establishments of charity, 

 being established by the poor themselves ; that they 

 encourage industry, since each individual must 

 depend, as much as ever, on his own exertions, 

 which are more suitably rewarded, and promote good 

 morals by a strict inquiry into the moral character of 

 such as are desirous of admission to their privi- 

 leges. 



COPAL is a somewhat resinous substance, ob- 

 tained from a tree (rhus copallinum) which has 

 winged and very entire leaves, the foot-stalks mem- 

 branaceOus and jointed, and is a native of several 

 parts of America. Considerble quantities of copal 

 are annually exported from the Spanish colonies in 

 America, in irregular masses, some of which are 

 transparent, of a yellowish or brown colour ; and 

 others are whitish and semi-transparent. By solu- 

 tion in different ways, it is made into a most beauti- 

 ful and perfect varnish, which has the name of copal 

 varnish. One mode of making this is by melting 

 the copal with an equal quantity of linseed oil ; 

 another by mixture with oil of turpentine : and a 



third, by mixture with alcohol, or spirit of wine. 

 Copal is the varnish which is chiefly applied to snuff- 

 boxes, tea-boards, and other similar articles. 



CO-PARTNERSHIP. See Partnership. 



COPECK (kopeika) ; a Russian copper coin, so 

 called from the impression of St George bearing a 

 lance. A hundred of them make one ruble. (See 

 Coin.) The value of the copper coin, compared with 

 the assignation-ruble, varies in the different govern- 

 ments. 



COPENHAGEN (in Danish, Kioebenhavn) ; the 

 capital of the kingdom of Denmark, and the 

 residence of the king ; 55 41' 4" N. lat. ; 12" 35* 

 6" E. Ion. ; on the island of Zealand, in the Sound, 

 and on a narrow branch of the sea, which separates 

 it from the island of Amack. Copenhagen is forti- 

 fied, contains a citadel called 'Fredericshaven, and is 

 well built, with regular well-lighted streets, and fine 

 houses, principally of brick, ft contains 230 streets 

 and 13 public places, the largest of which, but 

 irregularly built, is the new king's-market, with the 

 statue of Christian V., and the octangular Frederic's- 

 place, in which four streets meet, and in the centre 

 of which is the fine statue of king Frederic V. 

 on horseback. Copenhagen contains twenty-two 

 churches, twenty-two hospitals, thirty alms-houses, 

 three convents, and 105,000 inhabitants, among 

 whom are 2400 Jews. 



The town is composed of three principal divisions, 

 which are enclosed by the fortifications, viz., the old 

 town, which has been much improved since the fire ; 

 the new town, of which the eastern (the finest, but 

 least lively part) is called Fredericstadt ; and Chris- 

 tianshaven which is situated on the island of Amack. 

 and is separated from the island of Zealand by an 

 arm of the sea. This channel forms a safe harbour 

 capable of admitting 400 vessels, where the naval 

 arsenal, the dock, and other buildings requisite for 

 the navy, are situated. This is, likewise, the station 

 of the fleet. Outside of the fortifications are three 

 suburbs, partly composed of fine country-seats. 



Formerly, there were four royal palaces at Copen- 

 hagen ; but, in 1794, the most splendid of these (one 

 of the largest palaces of Europe, called Christians- 

 burg) became a prey to the flames, so that only the 

 ruins and the splendid stables remained. The other 

 three palaces are Charlottenburg, now the repository 

 of the academy of arts, and furnished with a gallery 

 of paintings ; the old royal palace Rosenburg, where 

 many antiques and precious articles are kept, adjoin- 

 ing to which is the king's-garden, a public promenade; 

 and the Amalienburg, consisting, properly speaking, 

 of four palaces, which were purchased for the re- 

 sidence of the king after the fire had consumed the 

 palace. 



Among the other buildings worthy of being men- 

 tioned are, the arsenal, in which is the royal library 

 containing 250,000 volumes and 3000 manuscripts; 

 (according to a late number of the Foreign Review, 

 it contains 400,000 volumes) : the theatre ; the ex- 

 change, with the bank ; the Trinity church and the 

 beautiful Frederic's church ; the large, beautiful, and 

 admirably arranged Frederic's hospital ; the found- 

 ling, lying-in, and marine hospitals. 



Among the scientific establishments are the uni- 

 versity, founded in 1475, with four faculties, twenty 

 ordinary, and sixteen extraordinary professors, a li- 

 brary of 100,000 volumes, with valuable Northern 

 and Oriental manuscripts ; a botanical garden and an 

 observatory ; the royal surgical academy, which has 

 about 200 students ; the academy for military cadets 

 and midshipmen ; the royal and university library ; 

 the public library of Classen, with 30,000 volumes, 

 founded, in 1776, by two brothers named Classen ; 

 several public and private museums; the royal aca- 



